mtliiimiiiiiliiill il 




Class _jL.4^^ 
Book, ,W^ 



Gop^htN" 



COFVRIGUT REPOSIT. 



METHODS IN TEACHING 

BEING THE STOCKTON METHODS 
IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



f&^' 



METHODS IN TEACHING 

BEING THE STOCKTON METHODS 
IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



BY 

ROSA V. WINTERBURN 

FORMBRLY SUPBRVISOR OF ENGLISH AND HISTORY IN THE STOCKTON CITY SCHOOLS 

INCLUDING A CHAPTER ON NATURE STUDY 

BY 

EDWARD HUGHES 



Neto Yorfe 
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd, 
1907 



UBRJ^RY of CONGRESS 
Two CoDles Received 
MAY 29 \90r 

CliKSsfCl XXc, No, 

/IS OH"^ 

COPY B. 






Copyright 1907 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1907 



Press of 

TME New Era printing Company 

Lancaster, Pa. 



TO MY MOTHER 

FROM WHOSE BEAUTIFUL NATURE 
I LEARNED 

MY FIRST LESSONS OF LIFE 



FOREWORD 



Among the exhibits at the St. Louis and Portland Exposi- 
tions was one from the Stockton Schools. It was so arranged 
as to show in the smallest possible compass as complete a 
picture of the development of the course of study as could 
be presented in written form. The work in all bound vol- 
umes was shown in the following sequence : 

1. A typewritten monograph, or method sheet, treating 
of the subject illustrated in the volume. 

2. The course of study in the subject in printed form. 

3. The teacher's daily program. 

4. Work from the pupils, showing all the written lessons 
given in the subject from the first lesson in September to 
the last lesson in June. 

Under this arrangement the methods followed, the course 
of study to be carried out, the time value of every subject, 
the results secured, were shown in every volume. There 
were ninety-two monographs, or method sheets, illustrating 
fully the methods followed in the different subjects taught. 
In all cases these monographs were written by the principals 
or teachers. 

These volumes of method sheets, illustrated as they were 
with the results secured from pupils, met with a generous 
commendation from the teachers of America. Since the 
close of the Expositions hundreds of letters have been re- 
ceived asking if the Stockton methods could be secured in 

vii 



VUl METHODS IN TEACHING 

printed form. To meet what seemed to be a real demand, it 
was decided to issue " The Book of Stockton Methods." 

The labor of editing the monographs was committed to 
Mrs. Rosa V. Winterburn, under whose skillful direction as 
Supervisor of the Primary and Grammar Schools of Stock- 
ton much of the work has been developed. From this pro- 
posed editing of teachers' and pupils' work the present more 
ambitious book has grown, in which are given many experi- 
ences and suggestions that were not embodied in the original 
plan. In the use of the teachers' monographs repetition has 
been avoided and in many cases the methods have been con- 
densed, but the thought and the wording have been pre- 
served in so far as practicable. 

The book does not pretend to be an answer to the ques- 
tion, " What are the best methods of teaching ?" It does 
seek to show what is being actually done by teachers under 
working conditions when they strive intelligently to make 
their methods rational and useful. No claim is made that 
the methods given in this book are models for others to fol- 
low; but it is claimed that they are methods of practice 
rather than of theory. As such they are submitted to the 

teachers of America. 

Jas. a. Barr, 

City Superintendent of Schools, 
Stockton, California, 
June I, 1906. 



PREFACE 



"Where no wise guidance is, the people falleth; 
But in the multitude of counsellors there is safety." 

Out of the experiences of many people, tested, retested, 
and tested again, this book has grown. May there be in it 
words of help and direction ! In a sense it is a composite, 
but it is only in the way in which the civilization of today is 
a composite of what has gone before. No man dare say that 
he stands alone in his achievements ; preceding ages and con- 
temporaneous efforts have helped place him where he is, no 
matter how strong within him may be the personal element. 
So with this book. Superintendent, supervisors, teachers, 
and pupils, with perhaps an unusual degree of harmony, 
have worked together over the problems of the schoolroom. 
Some of the helpful deductions thus made are recorded here. 

This is a book of methods rather than of subject matter. 
Both might well be presented, but to do so would overburden 
such a publication. While it is true that without subject 
matter methods are valueless, the supposition is that a man 
or woman who is admitted today into the schoolroom is 
fairly well provided with the knowledge requisite for the 
task. Many teachers fail, however, in handling their equip- 
ments; many and many a pupil wastes a large part of his 
time in school because of the imperfect way in which the 
subject matter of even a common school education is pre- 
sented; many parents, eager for the best interests of their 
children, find themselves bitterly disappointed with the 



X PREFACE 

product turned out by the schools which have been control- 
Hng the intellectual development of the children for eight 
years. 

Character, individuality, citizenship, knowledge, indus- 
trial ability, general culture, — these have been the desired 
lines of progress for our schoolrooms. Along them there 
has been felt a strengthening, intensifying, broadening in- 
fluence that has been unquestionable in its formative power. 
It is in the hope of aiding to perpetuate these aims — known 
and reached out after by all true teachers — that we offer this 
book to our fellow-workers. 

Grateful acknowledgments are extended to Mr. James 
A. Barr, Superintendent of the Stockton City Schools, for 
his unfailing help and ready suggestions ; to the teachers, 
who have kindly permitted the use of extracts from sum- 
maries submitted by them of their work and methods; to 
Mr. Edward Hughes and Mr. S. H. Cohn, who have made 
possible a greater completeness of treatment by their liberal 
contributions on nature study and geography; and to Mrs. 
Alice Smallfield Schneider, whose careful development of 
the word study is the basis of the thoughts here presented on 
that subject. 

Believing that ordinarily the busy teacher has time for 
only a few reference books, the lists appended to the subjects 
are short, containing only some of the books that have been 
found to contain the most direct help or the most suggestive 

guidance. 

Rosa V. Winterburn. 
Los Angeles, California, 
May 23, 1906. 



CONTENTS 



PART I. 

LITERATURE LANGUAGE WORD STUDY 

CHAPTER L 

General Thoughts on Literature for Elementary Schools 3 

CHAPTER H. 

Presentation, Acquisition, and Illustration of Literature 
IN Primary Grades 9 

CHAPTER HL 

Presentation, Acquisition, and Illustration of Literature 
in Grammar Grades 23 

CHAPTER IV. 
Importance of Language Training for All Pupils . . 48 

CHAPTER V. 
Oral and Written Language with Primary Grades . . 58 

CHAPTER VI. 
Oral and Written Language with Grammar Grades . . 78 

CHAPTER VII. 
Word Study 100 

PART II. 

ARITHMETIC 

CHAPTER VIII. 

General Aims: Introductory Thoughts; Summary of the 
De\^lopment of a Course in Arithmetic . . . .127 

xi 



Xll CONTENTS 

CHAPTER IX. ; 

Subject Matter and Methods in Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, 

Seventh, and Eighth Grades 145^ 

1 
PART III. 

NATURE STUDY GEOGRAPHY | 

CHAPTER X. { 

Plant Study i73 i 

i 

CHAPTER XL i 

Animal Study: The Aquarium; The Insect Cage; Lessons 
ON Animals 190 

CHAPTER XIL , 

NoN-LiviNG Things 201 J 

CHAPTER XIIL I 

Geography 231 ! 

1 

PART IV. 

HISTORY CIVICS 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Introductory Words. History in the Primary Grades . . 263 

CHAPTER XV. 
History in the Grammar Grades 287 

CHAPTER XVI. I 

Civics 316 i 

PART V. { 

CHAPTER XVIL ^ 

Drawing. Music. Phy:sical Culture. Sewing . . . 333 i 



I \ 

' 1 



PART 1 
LITERATURE LANGUAGE WORD STUDY 



LITERATURE 



CHAPTER I 



GENERAL THOUGHTS ON LITERATURE FOR ELE- 
MENTARY SCHOOLS 

To prepare the child for life is the aim of education. He 
who knows how to read, and who desires to read valuable 
and instructive books has gained a great part of his educa- 
tion. 

A course in literature for grammar grades should tend to 
produce in the pupil the desire to read, the ability to under- 
stand accurately what is read, a familiarity with books that 
will result in discrimination in buying or in selecting reading 
from the shelves of libraries. None of these aims may be 
actually attained, but as potentialities they are worth striv- 
ing for long and earnestly. 

In this education there are three personal factors: the 
parent, the teacher, the child. The parent in the home is 
the mainspring. Where it is possible for 
Factors ^^"^ ^^ provide suitable books for his child, 

to direct his selections, and to encourage 
acquisitions in various lines of thought, there need be little 
fear for the future reading. Home impulses and training, 

3 



4 METHODS IN TEACHING 

when they are real forces, are the strongest influences in a 

child's life. 

The teacher's place in this scheme of education is most 

difficult. He should guide many minds in many directions ; 

^ . he should direct the school for the general 

Guidance 

good of all, and at the same time he should 

discover individual strength and preference, for he is train- 
ing to secure the best results for the race as well as for the 
individual. To select reading for a number of young people 
is no light task. Too often only general interest or amuse- 
ment is considered, and it is forgotten that these should be 
\ but means toward the end, — life and progress. It is not 
\, sufficient to encourage reading ; sometimes it must be checked, 
^^any pupils read too much instead of too little. Seventh 
grade boys have been known to draw a library book every 
other day. Such a condition usually means unwholesome 
reading and a sieve-like mind. It requires restraint as surely 
as the sprouting fruit tree needs the pruning knife at the 
proper season. A child frequently becomes interested in 
one kind of reading and is prone to refuse all else. An 
eighth grade boy said that if he had ten dollars to spend 
for books, he would buy nothing but Henty's stories. This 
is a perverted taste, for specialization in any subject should 
be preceded by underlying information on many. General 
knowledge is imperative for the broad foundation that is 
most useful for all lines. Moreover, different kinds of 
reading may open up new possibilities of life work, and 
may so guide the pupil into a variety of interests, — ^his- 
tory, travel, science, poems, biography, art, that a breadth 
of view is acquired that prevents narrowness in later 
specialization. 



LITERATURE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 5 

The center of this education is the pupil, who should learn 

self-control and self-guidance. He should gradually be led 

to make conscious and self-earned advances. 
The Pupil T , . 1-1 1 • 

Let hnn read with unconscious happiness 

and interest what has been selected, enjoying with childish 
abandon story or biography ; but when another choice is 
made, lead him to consider the opportunity of broadening 
out into new fields of thought and knowledge as well as 
exploring more thoroughly the old ones. By this means, he 
will learn to choose books more judiciously and to lay a more 
systematic foundation in all subjects. 

In the first two grades the stories are told to the children 
by the teacher. Compared with reading, this method in- 
volves some loss of time and literary style ; 
Presentation ^^^^ ^^ means on the part of the pupils deeper 

interest, closer attention, greater concentra- 
tion, more sympathetic response ; on the part of the teacher 
it means more careful preparation, through which comes a 
stronger fellow-feeling in the presentation, and the cultiva- 
tion of the art of story telling, a power with children. In 
the third grade stories may be read, although telling is still 
preferable. A short story should be told as a whole. This 
is demanded by the natural longing to get to the end, which, 
fortunately, aids the teacher in cultivating the sense of a 
complete thought or narrative. In long stories there are 
natural divisions which should be observed, for young minds 
retain best a short, connected recital. These breaks do not 
destroy continuity of thought or interest, for every portion 
of a well written story has v/ithin itself certain elements of 
completeness ; on the other hand, long narratives are con- 
fusing and tend to weaken continuity of thought. Every 



6 METHODS IN TEACHING 

part should make a finished little production, so told that the 

next division fits on naturally. 

Reproduction follows narration. Every member in the 

class should feel that he is held responsible for some part in 

this exercise ; he should be able to answer 
Reproduction 

questions if he can not tell the whole story. 

By dividing the class into small sections, every pupil may be 
asked for a part, perhaps all, of the reproduction. This is 
valuable training for little ones, for, added to the growth in 
English, there is the greater purpose of developing a sense 
of responsibility. The child comes to understand that here 
is a duty for him to perform to the best of his ability. He 
feels that in order to meet this responsibility to his work 
and to himself he must listen well, remember accurately, 
and reproduce fluently. A teacher can not develop too 
early a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction in a self-completed 
task. Written reproductions can be commenced during 
the first year, for the children soon take pleasure in form- 
ing composite stories for the teacher to write on the board. 
The children should be conscious of continuity of thought 
in these exercises. That is, no sentence given by the class 
should be written anywhere except in its proper place in the 
development of the story, and the teacher should either tell 
why it is not used in the place suggested or have the chil- 
dren themselves explain the reason. In making these com- 
posite stories many opportunities are found for improvement 
in sentence structure and for noting vulgar and incorrect 
idioms for future correction. Frequent reproductions add 
rapidly to a child's vocabulary and to a correct use of the 
new words learned ; continuity of thought is strengthened 
by making complete stories ; there is a gain in self-possession 



LITERATURE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 7 

by rising and narrating before the class ; clear concepts are 
formed if care is taken that the dramatic situations are pic- 
tured mentally ; the composite productions furnish abundant 
material for reading lessons, copying exercises, drawing, 
and spelling. 

Narrative drawing by the children is of greatest assistance 
in forming clear concepts of striking scenes. No matter 

how crude the child's illustration may be, his 
Drawing 

ideas are clearer for his efforts to put them 

into pictures. The better, more logical drawings that may 
be put on the boards by the teacher or by older pupils are a 
help and pleasure to the children, for they aid in fixing the 
development of the story, consequently, in acquiring con- 
tinuity of thought. 

In teaching a poem, the pictures presented by it should be 
seen clearly by the pupils before they try to commit to mem- 
ory. In these first grades the poems are 
A Po6ni 

usually narrative, as in that pleasing little 

account of the raindrops : 

" Some little drops of water. 
Whose home was in the sea, 
To go upon a journey 
Once happened to agree. 

" They had a cloud for carriage 
And drove a playful breeze, 
And over town and country, 
They rode along at ease. 

" But oh, there were so many, 
That soon the carriage broke, 
And to the ground came tumbling 
Those frightened little folk. 



8 METHODS IN TEACHING 

" Then through the moss and grasses, 
They were compelled to roam, 
Until a brooklet found them 
And carried them all home." 

The description of the home, the journey, the breakdown 
of the carriage, the run home again, can be made most inter- 
esting first in story form. The poem is then welcomed with 
delight ; difficulties in meanings and constructions vanish ; 
memorizing is almost without effort. Formal and formative 
studies on a poem should be kept distinct. While a child's 
mind is absorbed in the journey of the raindrops in their 
cloud carriage from the ocean over the land, down the brook, 
and back home to the sea, it should not be confused and 
distracted by a search for definitions of " happened " or 
" agree." If the meaning is understood the enjoyment 
should be unalloyed ; later, there can be taken up studies of 
words, constructions, and reproductions, when the mind 
may find in these more formal studies a pleasure equally as 
great as that given by the poem itself. Synonyms can be 
given and used. Five or ten minute drills two or three times 
a week in word exercises are invaluable, giving surprising 
results. 

The reviews of poems and stories should be tactfully ar- 
ranged, so that they do not become tedious. By this means, 

memory and power are fostered. The dra- 
Element matic element can be preserved. Simple 

acting by the children, even of the stories 
given early in the first year, is very enjoyable, and it serves 
to emphasize action and to vivify concepts. 



CHAPTER II 

PRESENTATION, ACQUISITION, AND ILLUSTRATION 
OF LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 

FIRST YEAR GRADE 

During the year it is possible every month to learn a short 
poem and to use a folk tale or a Bible story for narration, 
reproduction, reading lesson, and other drills. Many teach- 
ers are able to add a history story occasionally to the month's 
story material. 

A teacher ^ in a first grade gives some of her experiences 
with the children : 

About twenty minutes are taken for telling a new story 

to the class. The second day about the same length of time 

is taken for questioning the pupils to help 

Presentation ^, • . , /- ^ 

them remember the story, ihis is the nrst 

step in reproduction and memorizmg. The third day indi- 
vidual reproduction can begin. At first, one child rarely 
tells the whole story. The stronger or the older pupils open 
the way ; one begins, another continues, and so on, until three 
or four have taken part ; finally, more and more eager little 
hands are raised, until nearly every child in the two upper 
divisions can tell the complete story. 

Sometimes a little play is made of part of the tale. A 
tiny maid in her red hood makes a dear " Little Red Riding 
Hood," on her happy way through the for- 
est to see Grandma; some small boy de- 
lights in the hoarse growling that is supposed to belong to 

*Mrs. Edna O. James. 

9 



lO METHODS IN TEACHING 

the part of the old wolf. Cinderella, her gracious fairy god- 
mother, and her wicked step-sisters often converse for the 
edification of the other babies, who, in their turn, enact 
Silver Hair and the three bears, Tom Thumb, Dick Whit- 
tington, and the other heroes of the fiction dear to children. 
Fortunately, little ones do not tire quickly of these stories 
and representations, and ten days or two weeks pass pleas- 
antly in the efforts to reproduce in good lan- 
guage the story that has been listened to 
with such rapt attention. In the meantime, all unsuspected 
by the children themselves, much more than the story is being 
learned. The first problem that teachers of first grades 
must meet is how to induce the babies before them to forget 
their shyness and talk about the things that it is desirable 
the class should be learning. The above exercises accom- 
plish much in this line in addition to all the progress possible 
in language and general culture ; this is especially true when 
the stories are acted out. The dramatic instinct, or playing, 
is in every child ; if it has an opportunity to express itself, 
it becomes an important factor in self-forgetfulness, one of 
the first requirements for the happiness of a child in the 
schoolroom. There now follow formal language lessons, and 
the formation of a composite story for reading and copying. 
Toward spring the story of Hiawatha's childhood is taken, 
preceded by two or three weeks on Indian life. Much illus- 
trative material can be obtained for class 
use. The children examine everything, ask 
questions, and are told interesting facts. After a fairly clear 
child's idea of the Indians has been formed, the poem is 
begun, and for several weeks the many stories about the 
little Hiawatha are a source of delight to all. During this 



LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES II 

introductory work one day, at least, is given to Mr. Long- 
fellow and his love for children. 

The childhood of Hiawatha is presented in several divi- 
sions, some of which are : the cradle, lessons in the sky, the 
fire-fly, the rainbow. Wherever an opportunity for a science 
lesson presents itself, it precedes the literature. The fire-fly, 
for instance, is studied before taking up that part of the 
poem that tells about it. In this way the pupils understand 
the references with perfect ease. The story is first presented 
to the children in prose narrative. After it has been enjoyed, 
understood, and reproduced, the partial version is read or 
repeated to the pupils, who learn as much of it as can be 
remembered without too great an effort. In fact, the greater 
part of the memorizing is almost unconscious on the part of 
the pupils. The first grades use from the sixty-fifth to the 
two hundred and thirty-fifth line, and about one-third of this 
amount is remembered by the majority of the pupils. 

During the year we have taken but a step, it is true, into 
the wonderland of story ; but if we have created in the chil- 
dren a desire that will lead them toward an enjoyment of the 
best in literature, have we not done much? 

SECOND YEAR GRADE 

In this year the poems to be memorized are taken from the 
writings of the Gary sisters, Eugene Field, and Longfellow. 
They are first presented orally by the teacher, 
^ ^"^ who tells the story involved, often using the 

Method words of the poet, if they are understood by 

the little ones. It is very desirable that the 
children should form clear-cut mental concepts of the pic- 
tures in the poems. To facilitate this, expressive drawings 



12 METHODS IN TEACHING 

by the children supplement excellently the narratives of the 
teacher. Oral reproductions follow, some of which are 
written on the board, as was done in the first grades. A 
composite story produced in this way by the pupils is copied, 
thus aiding in the proper use of capitals, punctuation marks, 
and words, and in correct spelling. The poems are learned 
as early in the presentation as seems advisable to the teacher, 
difficult ones being given more time to be thoroughly com- 
prehended. Several stanzas are often almost committed to 
memory before the teacher is really aware of the fact, simply 
by using the poet's words and constructions frequently in 
telling the story, and by encouraging the children to do the 
same in their reproductions. 

During the last half of the year pupils may be permitted 
to write original reproductions, in which they should be 
enheartened to advance towards the accuracy of the copied 
work. 

In connection with the poems and sometimes with the 
stories, a little knowledge may be gained about authors. 
Field, the Gary sisters, Longfellow, can all 
be made real characters to the children. 
Short stories about them are interesting ; something of their 
lives can be seen in their writings, even by these little folks ; 
poems that are not in the regular course can be read aloud, 
several times perhaps, just for enjoyment, general culture, 
and familiarity with the poet. 

The following are thoughts from a second grade teacher : ^ 

In the second grade about twenty minutes a day are de- 
voted to the literature stories during two weeks of every 
school month of the year. This time does not include formal 

^Mrs. Mae Simms. 



LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 1 3 

language drills, nor does it cover all that is spent in the final 
writing of the stories. The former belongs to the language 
lessons, and some time for the composition work is found in 
the penmanship period. One of the most enjoyable stories 
for our grade is " Horatius," by Lord Macauley. The por- 
tions used are those that are full of life and action, where 
the story interest carries the child over language difficulties. 
It is surprising how many stanzas can be understood by 
the children, who follow with keen delight the preparations 

of the enemy against Rome, the flight of the 
Telling \ 1 . \ ^ - 

" Horatius " country people to the city, the desperation of 

the " city fathers," and the heroism of Hora- 
tius. As this poem is long and is used for both literature 
and history, it is permitted to run through the month, pro- 
vided the children show no signs of tiring of it. Usually, 
from the beginning to the end, the interest never flags, not 
even in the writing and formal language drills based upon 
the poem. The primary instructor well knows that in all 
the teaching in which she is the first source of the material 
for the class, the inspiration also must come from her, and 
that the results will be in accordance with the enthusiasm 
that she can arouse. If the pleasure is deep and sincere, 
the tongues of the listeners will be unloosed in willing and 
eager reproductions, and the writing that follows will be no 
task. When introducing a new story, it is advisable to tell 
it to the children in the morning while the teacher and the 
class are at their best. Then let the narrator put into the 
presentation all her power to make the subject interesting 
and attractive. Let her strive to so impress the listeners 
that later mention of the hero or heroine will bring a 
glow to the cheeks and a sparkle to the eyes. It is a good 



14 METHODS IN TEACHING 

plan to refer to the story several times during the day after 
it has been narrated, instead of leaving it untouched until 
the hour for reproduction. It can be kept fresh in the minds 
of the children by a question or two or a talk of a few mo- 
ments, which can be brought in without interference with 
other lessons. 

In the regular period for reproduction members of the 
class are called upon to tell different episodes, until, after a 

_ , . few days, any child can tell the complete 

Reproduction ^ 

story, or the portion of it that has been 

given ; or he can take it up at any point and continue it. 

Telling the story at home is encouraged, for it gives added 

power to be able to make a continuous narrative when there 

is no teacher or eager classmate at hand to suggest or to 

assist. Pupils who tell the story to parents, brothers, or 

sisters, usually show more rapid growth in language and a 

better command of the continuous thought of the narrative 

than do those who have only the class drill. 

About the third day after the introduction of the story the 

children are ready to write some part of it. The morning 

hour is generally taken for this purpose. A 
Writing . , ,. . , , 11.^ 

simple outline is placed upon the board, as : 

Rome, hills, gate, river, bridge, Lars Porsenna, soldiers, 
Horatius. This is to assist in keeping the continuity of 
thought, a difficult task for children. An outline for this 
purpose should be made thoughtfully by the teacher. It 
should be a careful arrangement of successive thoughts in 
the natural progression of the story, whose relation one to 
another is self-suggestive to the inexperienced little com- 
posers. For twenty or thirty minutes the children write, 
telling the story in about the form that it has already been 



LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 1$ 

given in oral reproductions. To the writers, however, it 
probably seems like a totally new presentation of the story ; 
and so it should, for to many of them it will be the first com- 
plete reproduction. Care must be taken not to tire the little 
writers. If at the end of a half hour the papers are not 
finished, they should be taken up, and the completion of the 
story left for the next day or for several successive days. 
The writing must not become burdensome; it should be a 
pleasure. 

To find material for the stories is not so difficult as is 
often imagined. Children like life and action, and delight 
in many a story that has been considered adapted only to 
older pupils. Good, interesting writers in both history and 
literature furnish abundant material ; still more can be found 
in periodicals. Children often need more solid intellectual 
food than is given in many school courses, and they thrive 
wonderfully upon it. 

The following is an original reproduction by a second 
grade child, written independently after the oral class repro- 
ductions. The periods and capitals are well placed. Note 
how the story interest carries the continuity of thought. 

HORATIUS. 

Rome was built on seven hills. 
Rome had a large wall around it. 
Rome had four gates in the wall. 

And Rome had a large river and the name of the river was 
the Tiber river. 

And the Romans called it the Father Tiber river. 

Horatius was the gate keeper. 

A man came to Rome and wanted to be a council men and 



l6 METHODS IN TEACHING 

they did not want him to be and he went off and got an large 
army of soldiers. 

Some men heard that Lars Porsena was getting an army 
of soldiers. 

They went around to the houses and told all the people. 

It took them three days and nights. 

They got in to Rome and they saw the soldiers. 

Horatius and two other men went with him across the 
bridge. 

they killed the first three soldiers. 

They killed the next three. 

They called Horatius and the two men. 

The two men ran across the bridge. 

Horatius stayed too long and the bridge fell down and 
Horatius was alone. 

He prayed to the river and he jumped in. 

They thought that Horatius would not come out of the 
river. 

But he did come out and the Romans were glad. 

THIRD YEAR GRADE 

In this grade the teacher reads many if not all of the stories 
and poems, so that the words of the writer become familiar 
to the children. Easy narration by the teacher, to vivify or 
to simplify the words of the author, is made supplementary 
to the reading. The pupils should now be reading many 
stories for themselves, for they should be appreciating and 
using the power gained by their knowledge of the mechanics 
of reading, and they should be learning how to get from 
books the enjoyment that they have been receiving through 
the lips of the teacher. 



LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES \*J 

In composition original reproductions should now super- 
sede composite exercises, the latter being used only for train- 

ins: in acquiring: continuity of thought or in 
Composition .^^ . ^ ^ . , / ? . . 

illustratmg some special features of writmg. 

For such purposes composite lessons remain valuable for 
several years. In the original reproductions topics should be 
given for short papers. If these are chosen from consecu- 
tive stages of the story the child will have eventually the 
complete narrative, a satisfaction to him, and a pleasure to 
the teacher and the parent. Such papers should be made 
into a note-book, as in the second grade. The first draft 
should be the one preserved unless mistakes are very numer- 
ous ; and even in this case it is advisable to keep the original 
as well as the rewritten sheet, in order to stimulate the child 
to do more careful work on succeeding first efforts. Weak- 
ness is being educated when a child is allowed to rewrite 
frequently. Insist upon clear pictures before the reproduc- 
tion is attempted. If a child can close his eyes, so as to shut 
out intrusive externals, and can imagine that he sees Sleepy 
Hollow, Ichabod Crane, or the wild ride on Gunpowder, he 
will be able to tell a more concise and vivid story than if the 
writing is entered upon without the clear mental pictures. 
The following story of King Midas is an original, uncor- 
rected third grade reproduction : 

The Golden Touch 
I. 

Once there was a very rich king whose name was Midas. 
He had a little daughter he liked odd names so he called her 
Marygold. He had a dungeon under his palace. When he 
3 



1 8 METHODS IN TEACHING 

wanted to be happy he would go down into the dungeon. 
Marygold went out to pick buttercups and dandelions. Midas 
said Poh, if they were as golden as they look they would be 
worth picking. Before Midas was so rich he had a garden 
of roses he thought the roses were very pretty. He use to 
go down in the dungeon and wish that the sun when it was 
setting it was gold and could be squeezed into a golden cup. 
One day a shadow fell upon his gold. He said in a surprise 
that he locked the door tight. The stranger said, are you 
satisfied. No said Midas, I wish that everything I touch 
would turn to gold. 

II. 

The stranger promised King Midas that he should have 
his wish. Tomorrow at sunrise you will have the Golden 
Touch. When he woke the next morning he touched the 
things around him and they remained the same he thought 
that he was fooling him. After the sun came over the hills 
he put his clothes on and they turned to a suit of gold. He 
went out and touched all the roses and they became a thin 
plate of gold and the worms in the heart became gold. 

He went back to the palace to get his breakfast. King 
Midas ordered Marygold to be called, very soon he heard 
l:er coming around the house crying bitterly when she 
n]u:nc d the door he said what is the matter, Marygold said 
lliat all the beautiful roses are gold and have know fragrance. 
Ever^tliing that he ate turned to gold. He thought that 
if he ate it quick it wouldn^t turn to gold. So he put a hot 
potato into his mouth and it turned to gold and he danced 
around tiie room. Marygold came in the room and said 
what is the matter and when he put his lips to kiss her she 
turned to a crolden statue. 



LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 1 9 

These extracts from a reproduction show the difficulty in 
combining mechanical accuracy with literary creation. There 
are many good points for a third grade writer, — life, vigor- 
ous treatment, continuity of thought, accurate spelling, a fair 
conception of paragraphing, and the use of periods and cap- 
ital letters ; and there are several indications that the writer 
possessed knowledge that was not used. Some sentence 
structures are weak and loose, especially where the thought 
grows more rapid, but the sentence structure is very good 
in other parts of the story. Personal revision by the writer, 
when undivided attention could be given to mechanical accu- 
racy, would probably remove the greater number of the mis- 
takes and strengthen many weak places. 

FOURTH YEAR GRADE 

In the presentation of a story in this grade the children 
read for themselves whenever the books are provided in 
„ y^ - sufficiently large numbers to permit of a 

class exercise. Otherwise the teacher reads. 
Individual reading is encouraged constantly under all cir- 
cumstances, so that the pupils are learning to use and to 
understand books for themselves and are deriving pleasure 
from their efforts. Pupils should read many more stories 
than those treated as class work, and the teacher should have 
on hand a store of pleasing and profitable reading for odd 
moments during the day. 

Reproduction follows the reading, usually after an inter- 
val of a day. It is either oral or written, preferably both. 
Only the regular stories, one a month, are so treated ; those 
read by the pupils for themselves or by the teacher as a 
relaxation are rarely taken up a second time. The monthly 



20 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Story serves many purposes, literary and linguistic. The 
reproductions are on detached but consecutive topics, giving 
opportunity for short, clearly pictured scenes in the papers 
that are preserved in the notebooks. 

There is a great deal of material for language lessons in 
these stories. In fact, the reproductions, the composition 
work, the correction of papers, are all treated under lan- 
guage. Correlation is very close in all of the essential 
branches ; differentiation belongs to analyses of methods and 
material, pupils need not be troubled with it. 

The purpose is not to give an immense amount of infor- 
mation, but to arouse the child's lasting interest in the sub- 
PuiDose ^*^^^' ^^ show him how to read, and to put 

exhilarating material into his hands. There 
is subject matter enough in any one of the Bible stories or 
the narratives from the " Odyssey " for much more advanced 
pupils, so care must be taken not to tell these fourth grade 
children too much. Such a mistake would overload the 
course of study, and, probably, by making teacher and pupils 
feel hurried, it would create a distaste for many of the 
stories. The first thought in presenting the stories is pleas- 
ure, — childish, natural enjoyment. This can be gained only 
by easy narration or reading, interspersed with conversa- 
tions. The reproductions should have the same purpose in 
mind, although progress must never be forgotten. Rightly 
handled, however, progress, in both literary and mechanical 
directions, is one of the keen enjoyments of the work. 

Three aims should be kept constantly in mind: — interest 
in our world heritage through participation in the well 
known stories that are a part of the world's culture; self- 
development through this world heritage, or a conscious 



LITERATURE IN PRIMARY GRADES 21 

growth in power on the part of the child; acquisition of 
knowledge. If the first two purposes are remembered the 
third follows as a matter of course. 

A fourth grade teacher^ gives in the following paragraphs 
some of her ideas about teaching literature stories : 

Literature as presented to the children is not the intensive 
study that is given to mature minds, even when the subject 
matter is the same. In the elementary grades, the teacher's 
aim is to lead the pupils into enjoyment of literature, for 
pleasure in good and beautiful stories is the first step toward 
future appreciation of authors. 

A little mystery or a suggestion of tragedy quickly 
arouses interest. David's encounter with Goliath, Ulysses 
and the Cyclops, are received with avidity. Repeatedly the 
question is asked, '' What is the name of the book that has 
that story in it ?" Or, *' Is that story in the public library ?" 
Thus the children are led into reading for themselves. 

After the story has been given and some parts repeated, 
it is discussed by the pupils, who ask questions about the 
portions that have not been understood, or 
and Poems ^^ which they have taken special pleasure. 

In this way the teacher is able to measure 
the interest of the class as a whole, as well as of individual 
pupils, a great assistance in knowing how to prepare the next 
story for presentation. The poems, which are usually short, 
are presented in a somewhat different manner. Every poem 
is either written on the board or mimeographed, so that a 
child can have his own copy. The pupils read it slowly, dis- 
cussing the thoughts, and getting the story. They are asked 
to tell from the poem itself, if they can, why the poet wrote 

^Miss Lottie Grunsky. 



22 METHODS IN TEACHING 

it. They talk about it freely, choosing favorite expressions 
or thoughts, pointing out " pictures," finding new ideas, 
making it their own. Many portions are memorized almost 
unconsciously ; some poems are learned outright. There are 
many explanations and discussions based upon the poems, 
but there are few reproductions except of the story running 
through any one of them. 



CHAPTER III 

PRESENTATION, ACQUISITION, AND ILLUSTRATION 
OF LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 

FIFTH YEAR GRADE 

Pupils in the fifth year in school enjoy many poems by 
Longfellow, who has a delightful power in picturing vividly 
Material scenes of life and action. The poems should 

not succeed one another too rapidly, nor 
should they be hurriedly presented. The teacher's observa- 
tion of the attitude and attainments of the class should be 
the guide in both respects. The first thing to be considered 
is that the pupils gain a view of a complete poem. This can 
be accomplished in several ways: The teacher may read the 
poem through, stopping over every stanza long enough for 
the children to give naturally its substance, and, at the end, 
the whole poem may be summarized ; the pupils, instead of 
the teacher, may read, a similar stanza analysis being given ; 
the pupils may read the poem for themselves before coming 
into class, looking out the thoughts for themselves. The 
last treatment is the most difficult for children ; it should not 
be insisted upon too rigorously nor too often, for to do so 
would probably result in dislike for poems. Pupils of this 
age grow but slowly into individual analyses, especially of 
poems, although they greatly enjoy this work with the 
teacher. The purpose in this preparatory glimpse of the 
poems is to gain the power of uniting several successive 

23 



24 METHODS IN TEACHING 

thoughts into a complete whole ; to enjoy the poem ; to be 
constructive rather than analytic ; to have in mind the whole 
instead of the parts. Pupils must be trained in the acquisi- 
tion of this power. Classes may read in the ordinary school- 
room manner such a poem as Longfellow's ** Ropewalk " 
several times v^^ithout any interest in it, for they have ob- 
tained no clear conception of what it is about ; but when they 
picture to themselves the long alley, the making of the rope, 
and the poet musing over the various uses to which the rope 
here made can be put, they will not only enjoy a short study 
of the poem, but they will also suggest several important 
uses of rope that Longfellow seems to have forgotten. 

We enjoy literature from the complete thoughts that we 
take out of it. To begin a poem with minute analysis or 

intensive study tends to leave an impression 
Intensive 

Study ^^ details, not of a whole. If such an intro- 

duction to beautiful poems is distasteful to 
the more mature minds of high school age, which are often 
turned forever from poetry because of the interminable de- 
tails and analyses forced upon them, how repugnant it must 
be to younger pupils ! Impressions thus gained are respon- 
sible for much of the dislike for " school reading." If, by 
getting the complete story into their minds, the children 
enter first into the life, motion, vigor, of such a poem as 
" The Skeleton in Armor," they usually take up readily more 
detailed study of difficult words and passages ; indeed, they 
frequently want to know what these very portions mean, for 
they come to see that some thought is not complete without 
an understanding of the more intricate passages. This is 
usually all the intensive work needed by young children, or 
that it is advisable to give them. 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 2$ 

Word Studies should be growing in importance by the 
time the fifth grade is reached. Selection of synonyms, de- 
fining words, giving attention to root sylla- 
Studies ^^^^» prefixes, suffixes, and their meanings, 

may all be made interesting research for the 
children, who are thus growing in knowledge of words and 
power over them. Training should be given in the mys- 
teries of the dictionary, for, to a child beginning its use, it is 
really a sealed book. 

The training of earlier years in forming clear concepts 
should be continued. Narrative drawings by the pupils 
strengthen the ability to do this by giving 
Details visible form and completeness to the imag- 

ined pictures. Outlines improve the judg- 
ment and the power of analysis, both of which are weak with 
children of this age. Maps make more real the geographical 
references, thus broadening the child's knowledge of the 
world. Where the globe and wall maps are used intelli- 
gently, and no attempt is made to require a child to memorize 
all that is told him, map work is a delight to children, who 
pore over maps again and again, thus gradually absorbing 
what it would be impossible for them to learn and assimilate 
in many lessons of drill. 

The pupils see some of the simpler beauties of the poems 
if their attention is called to the comparisons, which can soon 
be differentiated into similes, metaphors, and personifica- 
tions. There should be no intention of teaching figures of 
speech ; the desire is to show how more enjoyment can be 
obtained from the poems. The result, however, is that many 
of the pupils do learn these three figures very accurately, 
while others are prepared by observation to learn them more 



26 METHODS IN TEACHING 

readily in later years. This recognition of the figures by 
fifth grade pupils and naming them correctly should come 
slowly and by imitation, rather than by drills and direct 
teaching. The teacher explains often how she recognizes each 
one, and the children gradually acquire the same power. 
The first step, that of selecting a comparison, will be enough 
for many slowly maturing minds. 
The following thoughts are from a fifth grade teacher : ^ 
Little reproduction is attempted with the poems by Long- 
fellow, for it is thought better to have the child retain the 
Reproduction port's own charming expressions. Two of 
the main objects of this year are to inspire 
in the child a love for the beauty of the thought expressed 
in a poem, and a recognition of some beauty of form as 
found in rhythm and musical rhymes. If a reproduction of 
such a poem as " The Village Blacksmith " is asked for, we 
find it all cheapened, even to the child himself. He is right 
when he says, " I know it, but I can't say it." Who would 
attempt to express those thoughts in any language but that 
of Longfellow ? In a poem like " The Wreck of the Hes- 
perus," where a clearly defined story is found, reproduction 
is in place ; but it is the story of the whole that is asked for, 
not an exhaustive paraphrase of stanza after stanza. 

After reading the poem for the first general conception, 
we go back and make a more intensive study. The pupils 

are asked to look out for themselves the 
Detailed 
g^y^ meanings of the new words found in the 

stanzas, slow work at first, for at the begin- 
ning of the year a fifth grade pupil is but slightly acquainted 
with his dictionary, and has to be given special lessons in its 
*Miss Elma Hopkins. 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 2/ 

use. Again we go through the poem to see the pictures to 
be found there. The pupils look for the number of changes, 
the "pictures," which they can find and describe. Some- 
times the passage is read to them while they sit with eyes 
closed, and then they tell all that they have imagined, going 
even into details. What one does not see, another sees ; and 
many times, when ideas do not agree, very animated dis- 
cussions are brought out as one pupil tries to convince 
another about the right interpretation. Finally, out of a 
combination of the suggested ideas and of those clearly ex- 
pressed, a very definite word picture is brought forth. The 
child has been made to see with his mind's eye, and has been 
led to stand and express himself in words coming from 
independent thinking, not in the language of reproduction. 
Personal study along various lines is carried on every day. 
The dictionary is to be used, words are to be studied, papers 
are to be written. The greater part of the 
Studv time for these purposes comes from periods 

set aside for the more formal language work 
and for penmanship. Sometimes the pupils are asked to 
copy a poem, especially for training in punctuation, spelling, 
and accurate transcribing. 

Finally, the poem is read through carefully, considered 
line by line, stanza by stanza, in order to leave with the chil- 
dren a clear understanding of the complete 
Readine thought. Then an outline is made by the 

class. The pupils suggest the topics, the 
best ones are chosen, written on the board in proper arrange- 
ment, and copied during the next study period. Part, or 
often all, of a poem is learned, and in some cases written out 
from memory. In such poems as " Excelsior," where a 



28 METHODS IN TEACHING 

moral lesson may be inculcated, the deeper thought is left 
until the last. Merely the story is taken first; then, if the 
children seem ready for the inner thought, it is taken, but 
it is never forced. Recently, after the study of " Excelsior,'* 
a particularly appreciative child asked if the poem did not 
have another meaning than the one that had just been 
brought out by the story. The question led to a discussion 
of the great life lesson suggested by Longfellow, after which 
the children loved the poem far more than they did the others 
studied. Toward the close of the school year, when a paper 
was written on " My favorite Poem," more than half the 
class chose " Excelsior " and " The Village Blacksmith," 
giving in substance as a reason for the choice that the first 
might apply to themselves, and that the second might mean 
any good man whom they knew. The time given to these 
poems varies considerably. Such a one as " The Skeleton 
in Armor," where the life of a strange people in a foreign 
country and a distant age has to be discussed as a prepara- 
tion to the poem itself, may take from two to three weeks. 
The shorter poems may be completed in two or three days. 

The papers of the pupils, saved throughout the year, show 
that a great deal is gained from ten months' study of Long- 
Re ults fellow. There are drills in reading and writ- 
ing; the arousing of independent thought; 
the inspiring of a love for Longfellow and his poems ; the 
memorizing of many poems, usually with little effort; an 
ability, gained by nearly all the class, to read and enjoy for 
themselves the simpler poems of our writer, and to see and 
appreciate some of the beauties of his style. 

The following reproduction of a poem by Longfellow was 
written by a fifth grade girl. It is accompanied by a study 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 2g 

of words and another of figures given the class in connection 
with reading the poem. Probably the majority of the pupils 
knew much or all of the poem by heart. The quotations 
used are from memory, as is shown by the failure to remem- 
ber the arrangement of lines. No corrections have been 
made. 

The Wreck of the Hesperus. 

It was a cold stormy day, and the schooner Hesperus was 
sailing along the coast of Massachusetts. The skipper had 
taken his little daughter with him to bear him company. 
vShe was a beautiful little girl with eyes as blue as the fairy 
flax. 

He was standing beside helm watching the veering flaw 
blow the smoke in different directions when an old sailor 
came up to him and said, I pray thee put into yonder port, 
for I fear a hurricane. Last night the moon had a golden 
ring, and tonight no moon we see." The skipper did not 
believe what the sailor had said and paid no attention to him. 

Down came the storm and smote the vessel in its strength. 
The skipper called his little daughter to him and said, " do 
not tremble so, for I can weather the roughest gale that ever 
wind did blow." He wrapped her in his great seaman's 
coat and bound her to a mast. 

The little girl said that she heard the church-bells ringing 
and asked her father what they were and he answered that it 
was the fog-bell on a rock bound coast, and he steered for 
the open sea. She heard the sound of guns and asked her 
father what it ment and he said, some ship in distress that 
can not live in such an angry sea." Again she cried out 
that she saw a gleaming light and asked what it was, but 
her father answered never a word for he was dead. 



30 METHODS IN TEACHING 

He was lashed to the helm all stiff and stark and a lantern 
gleamed on his fixed and glassy eyes. When the child saw 
her father was dead she prayed that she might be saved, and 
she thought of Christ who stilled the wave on the Lake of 
Galilee. 

The vessel swept through the sleet and snow tow'rds the 
reef of Norman's Woe. 

The vessel struck on some rocks, and like a vessel of glass 
she stove and sank. In the morning a fisherman stood on 
the shore aghast to see the beautiful child lashed to a drift- 
ing mast. The tears were frozen on her eyes and her hair 
like the brown sea-weed floating on the waves. 

" Such was the wreck of the Hesperus, 
In the midnight and the snow 
Christ save us all from a death like this 
On the reef of Norman's Woe." 

In ordinary class work this paper, which is presented in 
uncorrected form, would be returned to its writer for per- 
sonal correction. Omitted words would be supplied in all 
cases, probably, with a possible exception in the last sentence, 
where the child's ear might not recognize the necessity of 
the verb in connection with " floating." 

Sentence structure, so difficult a problem for children, is 
faulty in the repetition of " and." There is excellent drill 
for the class In putting such sentences on the board and in 
having the pupils develop better structures by the omission 
of " and " or by the use of relative pronouns or adverbial 
connectives. 

There can be no objection to the use of the poet's own 
words in such a paper. The child is consciously reproducing 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3 1 

or quoting, and the elevation of thought and language is 

very evident. 

Word Study Lesson. 

I. Schooner, sharp built vessel, having two or more masts. 
2. Skipper, master of a small vessel. 3. Helm, instrument 
for steering a ship. 4. Veering flaw, changing wind. 

(This careful defining of words is a frequent exercise, 
every lesson containing from fifteen to twenty-five words.) 

Similes. 

As the fairy flax. As the hawthorn buds. Like yeast. 
Like the dawn of day. Like a frightened steed. Like a 
sheeted ghost. Like icicles from her deck. As carded wool. 
Like the horns of an angry bull. Like a vessel of glass. 

SIXTH YEAR GRADE 

Literature and history are still alternated in this grade in 
periods of ten weeks each. Whittier is the poet for the year. 
-. . J The first ten weeks are given to several 

short poems and " Snow-Bound " ; during 
the second literature period some more of the short poems 
and " Among the Hills " are read. It is desirable that the 
teacher plan to keep before the pupils the complete thought 
of a short poem, and of every division of a long poem. This 
is more important as the works read grow longer and the 
opportunities for intensive study increase. There is great 
pleasure for pupils in " Snow-Bound " and " Among the 
Hills," provided that the methods and difficulties belonging 
to maturer study are not forced upon their young minds. 
Many involved sentence constructions are readily mastered 
by grammatical analyses ; that is, by connecting subject with 
predicate, locating modifiers, or by using simple diagrams. 



32 METHODS IN TEACHING 

This is not done in the grammatical spirit ; it is for assistance 
in literary interpretation, although the practice strengthens 
the child greatly in understanding his grammar and in apply- 
ing it to his daily needs. 

There are delightful character studies in " Snow-Bound." 
The pupils should observe, discuss, and recreate the char- 
acter of the father, mother, aunt, and other members of the 
family, not forgetting Whittier himself. Have them inter- 
pret a New England home and the life of the affectionate 
Quaker family. Lead them to enjoy the beautiful figures 
of speech. Some of the last stanzas are too difficult for 
pupils of this grade, but that is no reason why they should 
not read all the delightful first portion of the poem. What 
can not be understood can be omitted, or, better yet, it can 
be shown as a fitting conclusion by means of the teacher's 
interpretation. 

The prelude to " Among the Hills " should rarely be at- 
tempted by sixth grade pupils for a beginning, but it may 
be used as an admirable ending and summary of the poet's 
thought. After the scenes of the poem itself have been pic- 
tured, the children are ready to imagine the drowsy heat 
of the summer day and the desolate, forlorn homes, where 
love is lacking. 

Careful attention should be given to oral reading. Pupils 
in the grammar grades lose much of the proficiency in read- 
ing aloud that has been gained in the primary classes. This 
is due in part to growing self-consciousness on the part of 
the maturing boys and girls, and in part to the fact that 
silent reading is supplanting reading aloud, making the latter 
seem only an exercise instead of a means of acquiring knowl- 
edge as it was in younger days. 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 33 

The following methods and experiences are taken from 
the work of a sixth grade teacher : ^ 

Some of the aims in literature for this grade are, to give 
the children a genuine appreciation of a few of Whittier's 
. . beautiful and uplifting thoughts ; to cultivate 

the ability to read intelligently aloud and 
silently ; to train a readiness in expression, both oral and 
written. 

In " Snow-Bound " and " Among the Hills " the pupils 
are prepared by a discussion of the geographical setting of 
^ the poem for the climatic conditions and the 

occupations that will be referred to in the 
reading. The pupils then listen appreciatively to the reading 
of " Snow-Bound " by the teacher. These discussions and 
readings may take three days, but after them the children 
are ready and eager to begin their own work with the poem. 

After a general but complete thought of the poem has 
been grasped by means of the reading by the teacher, the 
poem is divided into three parts for ease in studying it : — the 
storm, the evening at the fireside, and the day following the 
storm. The pupils now read, giving their own interpreta- 
tion of difficult thoughts and phrasings. Aided by a few 
suggestions from the teacher, they picture the Whittier home 
on the dreary December day, — the low-hanging clouds, the 
great circle around the sun, the east wind bringing from the 
distant shore the roar of the angry ocean, all forerunners of 
the coming storm. We imagine the day's work, digging a 
path to the barn and preparing for the coming night, when 
all gather around the blazing fire to listen to songs and 
stories. The kitchen, too, is new and strange to all the class. 

*Miss Charlotte Treanor. 
4. 



34 METHODS IN TEACHING 

The children are greatly interested to know that the old 
house is now owned by the Whittier Memorial Association ; 
and that the bake-kettles, bellows, foot-warmers, candle 
moulds, and some pieces of old china are still preserved. 
The first division of the story having now been read, it is 
completed by narrative drawings, written descriptions, brief 
outlines of different topics, and language exercises. 

The second division of the poem with us is the evening 
at the fireside, where, 

" Shut in from all the world without, 
We sat the clean winged hearth about." 

This we try to picture very clearly, for this is the home life 
of the Whittier family as seen by the loving son and brother. 
At last the great logs crumble down ; the " bull's eye watch " 
points to the hour of nine ; and the pleasant circle separates 
for the night. The uncle remains behind to cover up the 
embers; the mother stays to express in quiet her grateful 
thanks for the blessings that have been granted all ; the boys 
climb to their chill attic, where they lie listening to the storm 
sounds without. Soon sleep steals over them, guiding them 
into 

" The summer land of dreams." 

Through this part of the poem comparisons of the characters 
are made and short sketches are written about the members 
of the family. 

The third division of the poem deals with events after the 
clearing of the storm, when, at last, with the coming of the 
village newspaper, the ice-locked door of the world swings 
open again, and the family is in touch with fellowmen. It 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 35 

is with regret that we reach the point where Whittier closes 
the book of his memories, for by this time the members of 
the family are our friends and their interests are ours. The 
last two stanzas, however, are too difficult for sixth grade 
children, and the poem closes for them with Whittier's apos- 
trophe to memory, the *' angel of the backward look." 

The papers, or " stories," based upon the poem are now 
written. When they are finished enough time has elapsed 

after the second reading of the poem so that 
Reading ^^ ^^^ ^^ given its final reading without the 

repetition being at all tiresome. This final 
reading serves to put all the thoughts together as a whole, 
to connect its pictures, to interweave its characters and re- 
citals, and to discover new beauties. These are found in the 
figures of speech, which are studied for the enjoyment that 
they give, not to develop rhetorical knowledge. One result, 
however, is that the pupils, already prepared in the fifth 
grade by their studies of comparisons, recognize with con- 
siderable readiness nearly all the similes, metaphors, and per- 
sonifications, calling them by their proper names. This un- 
derstanding of the simpler figures adds greatly to the pleas- 
ure of the children in the poems. 

Memorizing is frequent, but is made as easy as possible. 

The children are at an age when they remember easily and 

. . constant supervision is given to training and 

exercising the memory. Much of the poem 
is learned almost unconsciously. The teacher may start a 
line, asking someone to continue, someone else to go farther 
in the quotation, then still another to give the whole. By 
almost daily observance of this practice the pupils form the 
habit of memorizing, and the amount retained by some pupils 



36 METHODS IN TEACHING 

is surprising. Memories thus trained hold on most tena- 
ciously to what is read. 

The treatment of shorter poems is about the same as 
that of divisions of long poems ; that is, mastery of a com- 
plete thought; the connection of successive 
Short Poems , , ^ . . 

thoughts; a first reading for understanding 

the poem, for grasping its complete thought ; a second read- 
ing for detailed study, for grasping and connecting the suc- 
cessive thoughts ; separation of the purely interpretative and 
the purely analytical ; oral reproductions or narratives based 
on the thoughts of the poem ; written reproductions ; word 
studies ; a final reading to leave in the mind the poem as a 
whole, encasing its beautiful wordings and thoughts. A few 
of the shorter poems by Whittier receive special geograph- 
ical treatment, as " The Fishermen " and " The Lumber- 
men." " The Poor Voter on Election Day " may be read 
after a mock election. 

Illustrations of various sorts are used. There are Perry 
pictures and selections from magazines and other publica- 
tions ; the children make narrative drawings 
Illustrations ... 1 , 1 , , 

of incidents selected by themselves or sug- 
gested by the teacher. This year Whittier's home on " that 
bleak December day " was constructed by the children. The 
house, the corncrib, the wellsweep, were made by the boys ; 
cotton was used for the snow ; the members of the family 
were represented by tiny dolls dressed by the girls. The 
miniature stage was set to show 

" Sweet doorway pictures of the girls/* 

as the oxen and the drivers came plodding along down the 

hillside. 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 37 

The term closes with a sketch of Whittier's life us it is 
known after twenty weeks spent in the study of his poems. 

By the time the sixth grade is reached the papers are too 
long to be given in their entirety. Extracts, however, show 
some of the progress made by the pupil in composition and 
in his comprehension of literature. They also indicate lines 
of correction and guidance for the teacher. 

Among the Hills. 
Prelude. 

Whittier commences the prelude of " Among the Hills " 
by telling of a hot, quiet, sultry, summer day. There was 
only a little wind and that was a high one, because just the 
tops of the maples made a faint motion. Everything seemed 
to be lazy and the only sounds were the locust and a hay 
wagon creaking along with the driver half asleep. The 
goldenrods were drooping in the sun and through the door 
came a drowsy smell of heliotrope, clover and mignonette. 
The harvesters were resting under the trees as it was in the 
hottest part of the day, which was noon. As they were 
resting there they told riddles and sang. 

The day was very hot and hazy and the sheep were hud- 
dled up against the stone wall, for it was the coolest and 
shadiest place they could find. Whittier had been busy a 
long time writing and lecturing about slavery but now, when 
he has finished, he begins this poem. He says that all are 
not idle, a farmer's son who took a fancy to work did his 
work in the field and was proud of it. 

The farmer and his family were willing to do their work 
and as there was love, harmony, and beauty in this home the 



38 METHODS IN TEACHING 

work seemed easier. As the farmer loves his wife, he is 
just, generous, and tender toward her. After Whittier de- 
scribed this home he said, 

" I know too well the picture has another side." 

Then he thinks of away back and describes a bad, dirty 
home. The people are well off but they are so stingy and 
selfish that everything seems uncomfortable and they grow 
old before their time. There is no love or beauty or har- 
mony in their home and nothing seems happy as in the other 
home. They have no flowers, trees, or vines around and 
the only things growing are weeds and burdocks, because 
they grow without cultivation. These people do not notice 
anything beautiful, as the turning of leaves in October, the 
sparrow's and bobolink's song, the beautiful hills, the woods, 
and the sun and flowers. 

They go to church because they are afraid of the unseen 
Powers, but when it comes to pay pulpit-tax or pew rent 
they grumbled. 

The walls of the house were blistering in the sun, because 
there were no vines or trees to shade them. Instead of cur- 
tains, rags were stretched across the window panes. There 
was confusion in the kitchen and the floor was not washed, 
the only times it was cleaned was with a broom. The best 
room was like a cellar and as it was always shut up from 
the air it was damp and suffocating. There were no books 
in this room and the only picture was that of an old green 
haired, peony cheeked woman sitting under willows that 
couldn't be recognized. 

The women that lived here were always complaining and 
quarreling and the men were cross and sullen. These peo- 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 39 

pie had no love, and they piled up their rubbish against the 
chimney, then covered it with logs so that it couldn't be seen, 
and they were also talking ill of their neighbors most of the 
time. 

They tried to save in everything and when they had pork, 
they only put a little salt on it. They thought that the " Ser- 
mon on the Mount " is no more than an outdated almanac. 
These people had plenty of land but they didn't till any 
more than half of it. When the beggar came for something 
to eat they refused him but he thought that he was better 
off in his best than they were by the way they were living. 

Whittier says that a home is not like the one just de- 
scribed when there is love, happiness, and beauty, and people 
plant flowers and vines. He also says that if people have 
the money they should have nice homes as most of them are 
now but once in a while a bad one is found. At the last 
of the prelude Whittier calls happiness " Golden Age " and 
he thinks that it ought to come to every one living in this 
country, 

" Where whoso wisely wills and acts may dwell 
As king and lawgiver, in broadacred state, 
With beauty, art, taste, culture, books, to make 
His hour of leisure richer than a life 
Of fourscore to barons of old time." 

This paper shows what is so often found in those gram- 
mar grades that are so fortunate as to be encouraged into 
thought growth and thought expression, — a power of 
thought in advance of mechanical accuracy. It is a natural 
condition under the circumstances just mentioned, and it 
is far safer for the child's development than when the reverse 



40 METHODS IN TEACHING 

is true, and mechanical processes are drilled and drilled upon 
with little or no thought behind them, and less possibility 
for its development. 

The nature of the mistakes made indicates the kind of 
drills needed, probably by the majority of the class. In- 
deed, almost every error in this paper is suggestive of class 
work, rather than individual correction; while it would be 
almost labor lost simply to write corrections on the compo- 
sition. The errors are not careless, they are the result of 
growth, and they have deep, underlying reasons which must 
be laid bare to the child and drilled out of his use. Some 
of them are indications of the most necessary grammar 
work ; some show the needed help in rhetorical lines. Gen- 
erally speaking, they are lack of agreement between pro- 
nouns and their antecedents ; lack of continuity in the tenses 
of the verbs ; occasional disagreements of number between 
verbs and their subjects ; punctuation lags behind the sen- 
tence structure, for semicolons are needed in several places, 
and a number of constructions with the comma called for by 
the sentences are evidently unknown to the pupil ; the para- 
graph sense is rather weak. 

These are all rather mature points for sixth grade pupils, 
and they are undoubtedly just the ones that are being pre- 
sented in the class drills as preparatory to direct instruction 
in them later. 

That which it is important to note is the clearness with 
which the child's production points out the next steps that 
are desirable in instruction. If this is a typical paper, the 
class drills are easily seen. 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 4I 

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE 

If, as the children mature, an appreciation of the reading 

selected for school courses is to be fostered, extremes must 

be avoided : — there must be neither too much 

X II ?^- 1 nor too little ; it must be neither too difficult 

or Material 

nor too childish. Too much reading gives 
no opportunity for thought; too little is mental starvation. 
Thoughts that are too difficult discourage a child ; those that 
are too childish disgust him with class discussions and drills. 
Without the thoughtful consideration that can be given a 
limited number of books, there can not exist that apprecia- 
tion of the finer literary qualities which brings aesthetic rest 
for the mind, and which helps clothe the ever pressing prac- 
tical side of life with poetry and nobility. On the other 
hand, if reading is scanty and lacking in the elements through 
which intellects grow, the minds are left empty and barren 
of all the great thoughts of the centuries. Sometimes, a 
meager supply of reading in class comes from- the desire of 
the teacher to analyze exhaustively every sentence, thereby 
limiting the amount that might otherwise be mastered. 
Grammar grade pupils are not ready for this kind of study, 
although it is true that they can be held to its performance. 
Such a method is almost sure to deaden any love for the 
great masters in literature. Children should not analyze 
their writers, they should revel in their works. This must 
not be considered as meaning that pleasure is the only profit 
in reading ; but, with grammar grade pupils, a desire to read 
and an enjoyment of the books read are the most important 
aims to be attained. During every school year there should 
be enough reading material handled to train the pupil's mind 



42 METHODS IN TEACHING 

to a ready comprehension of a complete story or poem, and 
to create the sense of power that comes with rapid acquisi- 
tion. On the other hand, the amount should be so limited 
that the striking beauties of every selection can be appre- 
ciated, its great thoughts sounded, its characters known, and 
its author made familiar to the reader through the general 
features of his style. 

Written exercises should be short and frequent rather 
than long and occasional. One power to be fostered and 
guided by reading is the ability to use good English. An ex- 
cellent way to stimulate such an ability is to write frequently 
and while in close enough touch with the author to be in- 
spired by his genius. There need be little fear of educating 
plagiarists. Where there is much conscious reproduction, 
the pupils will distinguish for themselves between an orig- 
inal use of words and thoughts and borrowing from an 
author. 

The following is a resume of some of the work done in a 
seventh grade class : ^ 

Seven works are read in class during this year : " The 
Talisman," " Ivanhoe," " Courtship of Miles Standish," 
"Evangeline," "Rip Van Winkle," "Legend of Sleepy 
Hollow," and " The Spy." The first two are abridged, the 
others are in complete form. These seven do not seem too 
many books to read, discuss, study, and write about during 
the ten months of the school year. " The Talisman " and 
" Ivanhoe " come in connection with some history work on 
the Crusades, which precedes our history of the United 
States in this grade. " Miles Standish " and " Evangeline " 
are connected with the colonial period. " Rip Van Winkle," 

* Taught by Mrs. Carrie Berdine Goode. 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 43 

" Legend of Sleepy Hollow " and " The Spy " precede or 

accompany the Revolution. 

The maximum time permitted in the schoolroom every 

day for preparation, reading, discussion, and written work 

^. is fifty minutes. Many pupils, however, who 

Tune 

take a pride in their notebooks, spend much 

extra time upon them. This does not interfere in the least 

with other studies ; it is simply utilizing leisure time. 

Independent preparation must be insisted upon, for self- 
dependence is a most necessary lesson to learn. The pages 
or the topics assigned should be carefully studied. The 
teacher often gives definite assistance by putting on the 
board such directions as these : Read the chapter attentively ; 
be able to reproduce it orally; define the following words, 

; explain the following lines, ; picture to yourself 

certain scenes ; how is this lesson connected with the pre- 
ceding reading? 

The recitation following this preparation is as varied as 
possible. There are readings and discussions ; words are 
studied ; difficult constructions are explained ; all kinds of 
allusions are noted, explained, or assigned for the next day ; 
a few rhetorical figures, principally those familiar in the 
lower grades, are considered, and new ones are occasionally 
taken up, if prominent in the reading. The lesson as pre- 
pared by the pupils is always the basis for the recitation, but 
it is far from being the limit ; for the recitation is more than 
a period for testing ; it is an opportunity to teach good habits 
of work, to show the desirability of broad information on 
many subjects, and to develop the mental powers of the 
children. The humor of the author, his vivid descriptions, 
his ability to make his characters live for us, are all talked 



44 METHODS IN TEACHING 

about. Many questions are asked to bring out the thoughts 
conveyed by the lesson. One question often asked in some 
form or other is, " What has made this chapter so interest- 
ing?" or, "Why has this chapter not been as interesting as 
the preceding ?" Spirited and varied are the answers of the 
youthful critics. 

During the reading in class, while the more careful study 
is under way, pictures of scenes in the story are presented. 

For this purpose books are brousrht from 
Pictures , 

the public library, magazine articles are util- 
ized, and home libraries become more familiar to the chil- 
dren. As abridged editions of " The Talisman " and " Ivan- 
hoe " are used in class, the teacher often reads some of the 
vivid descriptions in complete form and recommends them 
to the pupils, many of whom read the longer edition. 

The written work based on the literature averages about 
twenty minutes a day for ten months. Notebooks are kept, 

and every pupil is responsible for every sub- 
Written . , - 
^jjj.j^ ject treated, for every map, and for every 

drawing. The notebooks are in every day 
use and are taken care of by the pupils themselves. Ordi- 
narily a paper is written and submitted to the teacher for 
criticism, then it is copied if necessary and put into the note- 
book. Many of the portfolios thus made consist entirely of 
first papers, that is, of uncopied papers which have required 
little or no correction. Before writing begins a clear state- 
ment is made of what is desired. If the paper is to be a 
character sketch, a short narrative, or a description, a short 
outline is placed before the pupil as a guide. If it is to be 
an outline of a chapter or of a poem, the class work it out 
either as a composite production or they do it individually. 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 45 

While the pupils are writing the teacher passes among them, 
dropping a hint, suggesting a change, or making a correc- 
tion. After the papers are completed one is selected for crit- 
icism by the class. Portions are placed upon the board; 
pupils point out faulty constructions or erroneous ideas, and 
reconstruct the passages. This method is followed about 
once a month, but all the papers are corrected by the teacher 
every time a set is written. The corrections made in the 
papers by the teacher relate to spelling, punctuation, gram- 
matical errors, and poor style. A few words on the margin 
of the paper often indicate the nature of the weakness, as: 
" A poor beginning." " Reconstruct this sentence." " Mean- 
ing not clear." " Rewrite the entire paper." " I cannot 
understand your thought." " Story too long." " Too much 
repetition." 

Some of the most interesting lessons of the year are those 
spent in determining what has been learned about the author 

through his book ; in discussing the qualities 
Gains by 
the Pupils ^^^^ make certain characters the hero and 

the heroine ; in recalling incidents similar to 
those mentioned in the story ; in bringing out the lessons 
taught ; in discussing the inspiration for living that one can 
gain from such characters as Rebecca, Ivanhoe, Miles Stan- 
dish, Evangeline, Priscilla. There is, however, a subtle im- 
pulse that pupils receive from the right kind of literature 
that can not be described by the teacher nor illustrated by 
any visible sign. Many a pupil may read an entire book, 
study it all carefully, write frequent papers upon it, and yet 
not be able to give account of the most valuable information 
that has been imparted by its pages ; but, if he has been en- 
thusiastic, he has gained a desire to read more works by tal- 



46 METHODS IN TEACHING 

ented authors. Companionship with great writers means 
that a child's leisure may be valuably filled, and that an in- 
tangible, immeasurable influence may have begun to elevate 
his life. No matter how many ends have been served by the 
child's study of literature, surely, this is the highest. 

In literature, as in the other studies, a notebook is kept by 
every pupil. Some of the papers it contains are original, 
some are the result of class work, some are given in sub- 
stance by the teacher; there are maps, drawings, illustra- 
tions, suggestions from various sources. The result is often 
a very pleasing whole, although failures and imperfections 
mar this phase of the work as frequently as any other, for 
the notebooks are as purely individual as any other part of 
the year's work. 

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE 

During this last year of the grammar grades the works 

read are principally from American authors, although Scott 

and Dickens are also represented. It is in- 
Material 

tended to associate every American author 

read with the period of history in which he belongs, and to 
present some of the formative influences of his times. Pe- 
riod dates are to be kept in mind, but it is hoped to accom- 
plish this by grouping events around a central date rather 
than by sheer memory of many dates. 

Acquaintance with the author is broadened and deepened 
by reading aloud to the class additional poems or extracts 
from stories and essays, and in many ways the teacher tries 
to keep the pupils interested, thoughtful readers. In their 
pleasure will be found an incentive to read more; in their 



LITERATURE IN GRAMMAR GRADES 4/ 

thoughtfulness will be the means of growth ; and in the wise 
selection of books, toward which they should be guided 
through the school acquaintance with authors, will be the 
safety in their reading. 



LANGUAGE 



CHAPTER IV 

IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING FOR ALL 
PUPILS 

To use good English is of as much importance to the busi- 
ness man as to the frequenter of social functions, but this 

" good English " must not be interpreted as 
Language 

Training meaning simply scrupulous grammatical ac- 

curacy. Such precision is important to the 
cultured, thoroughly educated man ; but of far more impor- 
tance to the future of the ordinary boy or girl is the acquire- 
ment of an easy flow of language, spoken and written, that 
is concise and accurate in the choice of words, terse in the 
utterances, explicit in the details, truthful and convincing in 
argumentation, according to the pleasure or need of the occa- 
sion. Such a power is of inestimable value in the home, the 
workshop, the office, in any professional career. Natural to 
some people, almost denied to others, the school is the train- 
ing room for its acquisition by all. 

In our city there is carried on throughout the eight years 
of the grammar schools a definite, systematic plan for the 
elimination of common errors of speech and for the training 
into an easy, tolerably correct, and ready use of English in 
written and spoken form. Frotn the first year three divi- 

48 



IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING 49 

sions are made in this training and three kinds of drill are 
constantly practiced. These divisions are : — oral language ; 
technical work, consisting of applied grammar in the four 
lower grades and of drills and textbook grammar in the four 
higher grades ; composition. 

Since to converse is a necessity for all, why should not 
a part of the school time be used in exercises that tend defi- 
nitely toward gaining power in oral expres- 
Lanffuage ^^°"^ Children of the first grade should 

begin to reproduce stories, to narrate inci- 
dents of personal experience, to describe persons, actions, 
and objects. This training, simple as the child's own life, 
should accompany his development, broaden with his widen- 
ing horizon of thought and observation, and adapt itself to 
the growing power of expression that belongs to every suc- 
ceeding year of school life. Oral exercises should be of 
about the same grade of difficulty as the written ones, and 
should precede when both are given on the same subject. 
There should be as great a variety of topics as possible, 
chosen from the known elements of the child's life. Narra- 
tion predominates in all grades; but there should also be 
simple, accurate descriptions, expressions of opinions, pic- 
tures of people. While talking, the child should be very free 
from the restraint of formal training, telling freely his 
thoughts about the suggested subject; later, there will be a 
special time for the consideration of errors and the substitu- 
tion of correct forms. 

One of the methods to which children respond most readily 
and unconsciously in oral language is the reproduction of 
stories. It is a useful servant in all grades, but, like other 
servants, it should not be overworked. The effect of this 

5 



50 METHODS IN TEACHING 

exercise is quickly seen in an increased vocabulary, new and 
easier expressions, greater continuity of thought, and a better 
conception of the development of a story and the story in- 
terest. Reproductions should not be permitted by the teacher 
to degenerate into mere memory recitals ; they should have 
some of the vim and skill of the raconteur. To develop 
this power one must never lose sight of the interest in the 
story, felt by nearly all children, and also of the natural 
desire to gain power, to do better and better work, to be 
wiser today than yesterday. 

In the primary years it is advisable to have some repro- 
ductions on the same day as the narrative by the teacher, 
while the interest is still keen and the mem- 
Re roduction ^^^ retentive. Volunteers are called for, 
perhaps ; or, the teacher selects some pupils 
who are sure to make a very good beginning in the repro- 
duction. Gradually, all of the pupils take part, and all of 
the desired portion is given. The whole is a composite, 
made up of many small offerings, not the least of which is 
to be scorned. It is very difficult for some little ones to 
offer anything at all ; moreover, the tiniest piece of marble 
may be just what is required to give proper form or the right 
touch of color to the finished mosaic. 

What to do with this oral rendering, this composite story, 
is often a puzzle to the teacher. As a finished product it is 
unsatisfactory; as a step in training it is acceptable. It is, 
therefore, as a part of the training that it must be consid- 
ered; here it serves several important purposes. It lays 
bare the pupil's faults in speech ; it suggests to the class the 
material that every pupil should eventually be able to give 
alone in reproduction ; touched up by the teacher, all or part 



IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING $1 

of it may be written on the board, where it serves as a read- 
ing lesson; later, when the pupils can write, it is copied 
from the board, the first composition work possible for the 
youngest pupils. 

The errors noticed in the conversations and reproductions 
furnish subject matter for many technical drills, which should 

be a part of the training in every year ; for 
Technical . • , . , , 

Pjjjjg accuracy m either written or spoken lan- 

guage can be gained only by long and patient 
observation and drill. Monotony must be guarded against, 
that enemy of technical language drills. In the teacher's mind 
the corrections should be grouped around grammatical prin- 
ciples, not because the child is to learn grammar, but because 
the teacher will do more effective work if the errors are 
treated systematically. 

The past tense of the verb is one of the topics that the 
teacher should have in frequently recurring drill. To be is 
a good starting place. IVere is an almost unknown word to 
many children. It must be introduced to them, then there 
must be explained its use when speaking of more than one 
person or object ; many drills must follow. " You was," 
"we was," "they was," are the torments of all primary 
teachers, and they are not unknown to the ears of even gram- 
mar and high school teachers. Even young children can 
learn that these forms are incorrect, and they can be given 
the right word as a part of the conjugation : 

I was we were 

he was you were 

she was they were 

The pupil readily accepts the conjugation as correct, and he 



52 METHODS IN TEACHING 

sees that " you was " does not belong in his speech ; then 
comes the effort to use the new form. To see and to do are 
separate matters, but the doing is easier when the reason for 
it stands out clearly. At first the pupils say the conjugation, 
often completing a sentence with every form, as : 

I was hurt yesterday We were hurt yesterday 

He was hurt yesterday You were hurt yesterday 

She was hurt yesterday They were hurt yesterday 

These repetitions give the necessary knowledge, fix the cor- 
rect forms in the memory, and train the ear and the tongue. 
After the conjugation, the pupils give many short sentences, 
using the correct word. Such drills should be short, from 
five to ten minutes long, but the work should be rapid and 
unflagging. 

There must be no attempt to teach technical grammar to 
the little children, except in so far as it is a natural and com- 
prehensible explanation of errors and an aid to their removal. 
On the other hand, corrections are rarely effective when con- 
fined to incidental suggestions in the schoolroom, because a 
reason for the change in speech is often necessary to con- 
vince a child of an error in the customary form. This is 
natural. A child from a careless or ignorant home, who 
never hears " you were " but who hears the incorrect " you 
was " fifty times or more a day, can not be expected to accept 
readily the really foreign " you were " by simply hearing it 
a few times in the schoolroom and by being corrected occa- 
sionally. Only a naturally self-observant child, desirous of 
progress, will thus change his language. It is useless for 
the teacher to become discouraged ; equally valueless are 
scoldings and faultfindings. The child must be given a 



IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING 53 

desire to speak properly, and a reason why the old usage is 
not right ; the correct form must be clearly understood ; then 
must follow long and patient drill to overcome habits of 
years and existing daily environment. The mind must be 
convinced, desire must be aroused, the ear and the tongvie 
must be educated, and the memory must be brought into 
active service ; by these means considerable progress will be 
made. That so many children do acquire a correct use of 
English must be the teacher's encouragement in this some- 
what disheartening task. 

Composition, or some form of written exercise, is an im- 
perative part of language work. It should be used fre- 

. . quently in every year of school life. The 

Composition , 

conversational ease and frequent laxity of 

oral exercises can be turned into more polished constructions 
and accurate expressions when put into definite written form. 
To a first grade child a written sentence should be a pictured 
thought with letters, capitals, and punctuation marks all 
properly arranged. By frequent drills, made so interesting 
that they do not deaden the desire to acquire power and 
knowledge, this acquaintance with a sentence must pass into 
mechanical accuracy, until easy sentences are written prop- 
erly, without that struggle for correct expression that so 
frequently mars the pleasure of writing. Pupils like to 
write. Unfortunately, injudicious teaching too often trans- 
forms the pleasure into a dreaded task. 

Composition follows the lines of development observed in 
oral exercises, through narration, description, and explana- 
tion, into character sketches, biographical details, judgments, 
discussions, debates. The first step is copying the composite 
stories. Original reproductions come next. These, rare in 



54 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the first year, are permitted more and more frequently as 
the pupils grow older, until copying is used only for the 
most technical drills. The two forms differ radically from 
each other. Copying is mechanical, formal, requiring close 
attention to accuracy in details; the original reproductions, 
while based upon memory, permit some use 
Writing ^^ ^^^ creational, formative powers, demand- 

ing an absorption into the thoughts of the 
subject that is often detrimental to the mechanics of compo- 
sition. Manifestly, the methods of producing the two forms 
of writing, and the purposes that they serve in the training 
of the child must differ greatly. The copying is for mechan- 
ical accuracy; the original writing is for thought develop- 
ment and growth. 

In the original writing the interest must be preserved. 
The flow of ideas in the story telling must not be checked 
by reiterations about mechanical details ; these will be at- 
tended to at another time. When the child can write by 
himself let him spend some unbroken time over his nar- 
rative or description. Let him express his thoughts un- 
checked, just as a mature person must do if he is not to lose 
the inspiration. That is, give the inspiration opportunity 
to develop, unhampered by the fear of mechanical errors. 
Separate the formal from the formative. Since training 
for habit must always be a part of our work with children, 
this freedom from interruption during writing must not 
mean careless work. The pupil should try to write as cor- 
rectly as he can in this first draft. He will be assisted in 
doing so if correct spelling, capitalization, punctuation, are 
referred to by the teacher before the writing is begun, and 
the pupil is encouraged to make this first writing as free as 



IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING 5$ 

possible from mistakes. But errors will occur. Who is 
absolutely free from them in making a first draft of a manu- 
script? The teacher should not be impatient nor the child 
discouraged. Put the papers away for a day or two, as a 
more mature writer would be liable to do, then give them 
back to their writers for corrections, and it will be surprising 
how many of their own mistakes the children will notice. 
This is the most helpful kind of correction, for it is self-help. 
There are two lines of correction and criticism to, be 
observed constantly : — known errors, or those on which there 

have been class drills which have made them 
p familiar to all the pupils ; unknown errors, or 

those which the children have not yet learned 
to recognize as mistakes. The method of correction should 
be radically different for these two kinds of errors. Pupils 
should be held to self-correction of the former, just so soon 
as the drills have been sufficiently thorough to warrant thus 
throwing the responsibility on the child ; but they can only 
be assisted to understanding the second class of errors in 
preparation for later study. Advanced grammatical points, 
good sentence structures, unity and harmony of thought, 
composition of paragraphs, can be subjects for class criti- 
cisms, suggestion, and drills, gradually and whenever the 
pupils reach the necessary development for their comprehen- 
sion. It is surprising how critical children become about 
their own productions, and how helpful they are to one 
another, under friendly, suggestive guidance. This is the 
beginning of real power. It is learning to recognize and to 
correct one's own weaknesses. 

Writing papers belongs to the literary side of education, 
to the intensive, the inspirational, the formative; but cor- 



56 METHODS IN TEACHING 

reeling papers belongs to the analytical, the technical, the 
accurate, the formal. Correcting papers is a serious and 
difficult task in all grades, even in the first, for upon the 
success of the criticism and the correction depends the growth 
of the child. It is wasted energy for the teacher to spend 
solitary hours in correcting papers or in indicating their 
errors. Such efforts rarely result in more than correct 
papers, while it is the child who is to be corrected, and who 
must learn to correct himself. The only true help is in guid- 
ing others to help themselves ; and to wear out the teacher 
over piles of exercises is a false conception of values. The 
teacher's freshness, enthusiasm, and vigor should be for some 
immediate work with the children ; they belong in the school- 
room, not in solitary work at a desk over papers. At the 
same time, the pupils must have the advantage of careful 
corrections or their writing will be in vain. This can be 
gained in various ways. Oral class drills make plain the 
common errors and the correct forms that should replace 
them ; class correction of a few papers out of nearly every 
set handed in shows the care taken by some pupils and the 
thoughtlessness of others, it is also further drill in correcting 
old errors and in pointing out new ones to be avoided ; hold- 
ing the pupils responsible, within reasonable limits, for over- 
seeing their own papers opens the way for them into self- 
help, while, incidentally, it relieves the teacher of much 
drudgery ; an occasional exhaustive criticism of a whole set 
of papers gives exact valuation of the work of every pupil. 
Constructive criticism leads out into new fields of exer- 
^j.. . . tion; consequently, children should be 

helped, stimulated, encouraged, into new 
efforts. Adversative, severe criticism belongs only with 



IMPORTANCE OF LANGUAGE TRAINING 57 

carelessness ; it should be for the purpose of throwing the 
burden of careless errors where it belongs, — upon the pupil. 
Pupils trained to these two kinds of criticism, and through 
them out into self-criticism and self-correction, write more 
surely, accurately, and willingly than do those whose papers 
are regularly corrected by the teacher for the pupils to 
rewrite. 



CHAPTER V 

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE WITH PRIMARY 
GRADES 

FIRST YEAR GRADE 

The following thoughts from the schoolroom are by a 
first grade teacher : ^ 

During the first four months of the first term in school 
the time devoted to language has for its special purposes 
accustoming the child to freedom in express- 
in Language ^"^ himself, leading out as rapidly as pos- 
sible into the substitution of correct forms 
for the many errors that mar the speech of the ordinary 
child. Ten minutes are used for this purpose in the morn- 
ing, ten more in the afternoon. At first the pupil is led to 
talk easily and naturally about any familiar object, animal, 
or game. He is making statements, or " telling stories." A 
tiny narrative is often the outgrov^th of such a talk. Writ- 
ten upon the board, this pleases the children and gives oppor- 
tunity to impart the technical information that a capital letter 
should be used at the beginning of a sentence and a period 
at the end. A proper noun is often used, also requiring a 
capital. These stories furnish material for lessons in read- 
ing and copying ; they are often enjoyed more than the stories 
in the readers. 

When " telling stories " with their punctuation are well 
known, practice begins with " asking stories," or questions. 

* Miss Susie M. B. Spooner. 

58 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 59 

The children are requested to ask about something. Some 
of the questions are written upon the board, attention being 
called to the mark that is now put at the end. Correct punc- 
tuation does not come until the child discriminates accurately 
between the statement and the question, and this is an accom- 
plishment that is acquired more slowly than is usually recog- 
nized by teachers. 

Very early in the year the daily time allotment for lan- 
guage can be put to two uses, — ^ten minutes for story telling, 
or the bringing together of material ; and ten minutes for 
formal language drills, or the correction of errors noted in 
the telling of the stories or in the child's conversation. The 
two periods should be distinct, separated by an hour or more, 
so that the pupil does not get the idea that his language is 
under severe surveillance when he is talking. Self-con- 
sciousness increases the number of mistakes with many 
pupils and often destroys all spontaneity of narration. Cor- 
rection of errors is not the sole purpose of the narrations, 
and the children should not feel that such is the case. 

Among the many errors noted during the first four months 

the following were taken for special, daily drills : " I seen," 

" have got," " is broke," " I goed," " aint," 

Technical ,, ^^ ^.^^ „ ,, ^j^^^^ ,, . j^awed," " keeped," 

" brung," " writed," " you was," " they is," 
" I are," " I runned," and " tored." One error is taken as 
the special thought for a week, although many other correc- 
tions are made during the same time. Many correct sen- 
tences are given by the children in quick, snappy drills. 
Some of these sentences are written upon the board for gen- 
eral reading and for drills in capitalization and punctuation. 
By the beginning of the fifth month the pupils are copying 



ftn Mv:i iinir'. in rp'A' ?iFr/<; 

nil iIm Iim.imI finiii ill* if rrttdcfA, ttn«l ropyifif: ri"ni ilu- l»n;n«l 
iIk • 'iMiiMmllc filorirt; from lil»'i;i|inr, lii'',lnry, 

, ni li.ihllr titlHlV. \]Ui,r .\yv i|| ||If; |i ij' rol- 

I. ■ I I. -Mir, I'.v III' « M'l «»l IIm' •.« vrtilll 

iiK'iiili (lir |mi|»i1m iiM il.l* in will* 111! Ir nr j^/jfial fttniioR ocru- 
F^ioiuilly, ill wliit li III! y iiMr lli« n own ir)Mu(lu<'ti(Mm in phuT 
of lhr« ronipoftllffl mimI fry to irnirmlKM <*Mpi(jilH aiifl mrrrrt. 

|MII|i I ll.ll |i til 

Mir «|l|liil(|| nilrti |||ir',||a|r |||r|| ||l||r Mini MM Willi lllf'll 
own riHili' fJinwillfTf^. ! tOllirlJllirR pirJiiM't; air ( nl|rr|r<| from 

iirwBpap<'i«i or maj/a/liirp rtinl plrtt'r.l ii|>nti ili. h .h Iirr'K tlc«l< ; 
rvriy pupil rliooflrR oiir, iiamcH jl.paHlrR il on liis paprr, ami 
vviihq tlir filoiy llial il nnj^j/rRlR l«» IiIim 'I'liifl in a »atJ8- 
l;i' lot y ImHU fur n wriHrn rxrrrlm 

I lir al»ov<' Mpoil i". a<l,i|il««l Ikmii llir woitl". of a l« ;n Iwr 
rn^ap,«'<l in a <|ii,iil<i <•! iIk mIv ulnif Hum .im iii.iti\' < liil 
ilron ilf foirij^ii pan iila^r, Rrimr <.| wIimih heal lilllr I'Iii^IImIi 
rniTpl wlirii in iIm ".clioolniom. In fillin Rfliooln, wlirir 
pnpilq roinr III. Ill li-iiiin in wliirli l'',n|.rlir,l, jn, jjir if^nal Ian 
J^Urt^^r, ami wImh |t.iniil-. <>i .Iih.m ilv wntK mlrlli}M"iilh ami 
nvmpallir'li( ally vvilli llir Iraclin, iin)rr Ir arromplitluMl in 
llH'liiRl year ami «lifTfMrnl nirlliiMlq <an Iir rmploycil, alllionf^li 
llir fM'nnal woil< is llir fianio. 

I'iMiii iIk III. my rJtCrcUrM foiiiid in ,i tidlrltnnK Iirloil^inj.; 
lo a IiirI j^;ia<l(' rliiltl, a frw liavr hrrn 'wlcrlcd lliry arc 
nmonrrlcd. jiiwl i\r\ llir pnpil ropird llinn from llir hoaid. 

I 

ynrr.lioin and Aii'^wrrM. (W'nlhnin jamiarv ) 

DIrl yon j;o lo llir Itain' I \v<*nl lo llw liam. I Ir wnil 
lldinr. 



I'; yoiii p'ricil bfoktn f* My jMiir il in.n'l ImmI-pm. 
In llir iiilfr lif'd'ii'' 'III' fiil«r r. iiol limlrfi 

II 
( Trp f»f IS an'l afr. 
Tlic l)Of»I<M iiir oil llif l)OX. Tlif l)nyR air |4(»»mI I«» IIu ^iih. 
Tlir ral is in (Iir (li^Il of milk. 'I lie lilllr kiflm it; fal. 
'I lifTf aif six lollni',. Ynm IummI;; an on lli* iKif)!';. 

Ill 

Al(l»r ' vi.'ili'Mi';, ( ;i|.il;il'; I'»r juop'r iiniint;, 
I )i Ihunmonfj r; A'la't; Im'(i'I llnani I'Imiw. Dr. CfOftfl. 
Mr. r.;irt r. oiil tai(t'i nil' imI* nl I /I i I nmclty ifi oilf 
).iiiil'»i . 

Oiii f.(l)'*r>l I'. 'Ill Wa .linij;f'ai !,!. I liv «ai ll-iirifl(jM St. 

IV 
Nfititrr Stiuly S(f»ry. (' lar.r. ( nm|>'>t.ifrj 
W'' li;iv (w'» ri' w f ;il' I |»ill,ir •; 
I'.tta aii'l Lama ^^ivr llirm to ns. 
Sec the hiark riii|:jR on tlirir ^rmi l*a( kR. 
One liuft yellow spotR nnfl tlie oilier lias ruan^r ppoft; (ai 

ill' I»l;i' 1^ r in;/'. 

1 liey cat paiRlry an*) aniwe. 

In flu:. tMa'lr fli'-rr ai'* ♦f»rilmii''l llic ^yf.trmala- rfl'utt; 

li'l^mi 'Iminj/ tla- prrrrflinj^ year to develop power r»vcr lan- 

f'liaj." anri I', make Its Uflc more acciifflte. 

[.uriKiuiK'^ '•^''^ ^^^ cmiverflatiofi» on comm'ai '.hjeet» 

of flir piiplh' llveft ; drt^crlptjoim '»f pirlme«;; 

f»l(irieft t;iiKK^^'l^'l l»v pi'tiirrs; reprodiK tioiiR of tlir slorieR in 



62 METHODS IN TEACHING 

history and literature ; little, very simple descriptions of peo- 
ple, places, objects; short narrations. 

The correction of errors is turned a little more along 
grammatical lines than in the first grades. Not that the 

pupils are conscious that this is the case, for 
Technical , . , . , , 

jjjjjjg there is no desire to teach them grammar; 

but the teacher's work becomes more syste- 
matic if it is arranged along known lines of knowledge, and 
a great aid is given the comprehension and memory of the 
pupil when work is put before him systematically. The 
conjugations continue with a slowly increasing number of 
verbs, and they are always enjoyed by the pupils if the 
teacher is tactful in handling them. As a result of their use 
the ear is accustomed to new sounds, and the tongue becomes 
ready with what were oftentimes previously unknown words. 
Pronouns are corrected and drills are given if such care 
seems necessary ; but if one pronoun is corrected, others 
should be associated with it, so that there is shown to the 
child a series of related corrections. It must be constantly 
remembered that persistent drill upon a few is better than 
haphazard correction of many. Perhaps only ten awkward, 
incorrect expressions can be eliminated during a school year ; 
but, if the number seems small to an eager teacher, just 
imagine the pupils' conversations without those ten promi- 
nent, ever-recurring errors. Would not such a result be a 
delight to the ears of a language-sensitive teacher or parent ? 
Would it not really be great progress? 

The past tenses of several verbs are a part of the work 
for this year. These are generally irregular 
ones, but whenever mistakes occur in regu- 
lar verbs they are immediately added to the list for correc- 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 63 

tion. It is of advantage to drill one day on regular verbs, 
separating them completely from irregular forms. The ear 
is aided by this plan. Saw and did are among the first drills 
of the year, although they also belonged to first grade work. 
The simple verb, I did it, is not drilled upon at the same 
time as the compound form, I have done it. These are two 
drills, for separate days even. Many children use the past 
participles of these two verbs correctly; consequently, the 
drills given are for learning to use correctly the words saw 
and did, comparatively new to many children. In this way 
it is possible to escape falling into the solecism, " I have 
saw," an error often blundered into through over-zealous 
efforts to use the new words. 

When the mistake is in the use of the past participle, the 
drills are on these forms of the verbs, saying nothing about 
the past tenses, which are probably being used correctly. 
The past participles specially suggested to the teachers of 
this grade are: written, broken, eaten, bitten, flown, blown. 
The past tenses for special drills are : ran, did, saw, ate, flew, 
blew, dug. 

Drills continue in the use of the period and interrogation 

mark. The comma is used in address, for attention words, 

to separate words in a series, to precede a 
Punctuation . ^ , , , . . 

Word Drills quotation. Several new abbreviations are 

learned, accompanied by the required period. 
Word exercises are frequent, as in distinguishing between 
their and there ; to and two ; too is included as soon as used. 
Many common adverbs are taught; as, well, nicely, slowly, 
kindly. Such colloquialisms as " busted," " ketched," " slung," 
and others taken from the pupils' vocabularies are discour- 
aged by suggesting better forms in their places. While it 



64 METHODS IN TEACHING 

is true that many pupils will continue to use these expres- 
sions, the leaven of better language will be surely at work. 
Drills must accompany all this word work; it is the only 
way to fix the points involved. 

The written work is of the same general nature as the 
oral, a development of self-expression, the use of an accurate 

and growing vocabulary, the formation of 
Composition 

compact sentences instead of loosely con- 
nected clauses. Little letters to some friend or relative give 
opportunity to teach proper letter forms. Reproductions are 
frequent, both the composite, copied from the board so that 
capitalization, punctuation, and spelling shall be correct; 
and the original reproduction, written after careful oral 
lessons over the same material. 

Simple as these individual versions may seem to a mature 
mind, for the child they present difficulties and responsibili- 
ties. Spelling and capitalization become more formidable if 
the writer is obliged to think for himself, even if he helped 
decide about every word of the composite when the teacher 
was writing it on the board. Moreover, there is the neces- 
sity of thinking out the story, remembering the details and 
putting them into proper order. 

Such " original " composition should not be given as busy 
work. It should be under the careful supervision of the 
teacher. In this way mistakes can be avoided, infinitely 
preferable to correcting them after they are made. To get 
the right form into the mind first is worth much in the train- 
ing of a child and in the acquisition of knowledge. The 
pupils must be at liberty to ask about any doubtful point in 
spelling, capitalization, punctuation, choice of words, form of 
sentence, general arrangement. They should be encouraged 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 6$ 

and trained to recognize their weaknesses and uncertainties 
and to ask for information rather than to make a mistake. 
On the other hand, they must not be permitted to become 
dependent. That which they have been taught thoroughly 
they should be expected to know and to use without assist- 
ance. Pupils respond quickly and happily to such self- 
responsibilities when they are firmly but kindly enforced. 
Just before beginning a paper have the children recall points 
for which all must be on the watch during the writing. This 
assists in remembering what has been learned and in putting 
it into practice in a new paper. After such a reminder many 
a pupil will produce a creditable paper instead of a faulty, 
unacceptable exercise. This is not direct assistance ; it is 
one of the steps in training the child's mind to be observant. 
There follow three written verb drills from second grade 
pupils. 

I 

has 1 
See saw seeing have >- seen 

had J 
See, see, the dog is running away. 
I saw an automobile up town yesterday. 
I have seen Eva today. 

II 

has ^ 
Write wrote writing have >- written 

had J 
Our teacher is writing. 
Our teacher wrote something on the board. 
Billy has written his lesson on the board. 
Gladys, the teacher has written a sentence. 
6 



66 METHODS IN TEACHING 

III 

has ] 
Do did doing have >■ done 

had J 
My work is done. 
We have done the drawing. 
Who did it? The teacher did it yesterday. 
Did the janitor do the cleaning? 
You did the drawing but mother has done the painting. 

THIRD YEAR GRADE 

Reproductions are continued, the pupils telling the stories 
that have been told or read by the teacher. Narrations are 
based on some topic chosen from the life of 
Languaee ^^^ pupil. Descriptions, simple but accurate, 

are given of what may be readily seen or 
heard by the child. Sentence structure is carefully watched 
to prevent the repetition of loose connectives. A knowledge 
of how to form compact sentences must be gained from the 
drill periods, but in the time for oral language the child 
should be held to practicing what he has learned. The pupils 
are being led to self-observation in sentence making, con- 
tinuity of thought, and other accuracies and niceties of lan- 
guage. Until they learn to criticise themselves there will be 
no sound basis for progress. This they can soon learn to 
do concerning the points which are known, and it is the work 
of the drill period to make known certain definite correc- 
tions for the child to incorporate into his language. 

In the technical work, the year is begun with a careful 

review of the points that have been drilled 
V6rl)s 

on in the preceding grades. A number of 

new abbreviations are learned. Quotation marks are 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 6/ 

used in many simple sentences. The principal parts of 
a number of the commonly used verbs are learned, as: 
break, go, see, sit, eat, tell, fall, give, come, take, sing, 
begin, draw, forget, speak, drive, write, tear, let, (to correct 
the use of " leave " in the sense of permit), know, blow, do, 
shine. The pupils learn the four principal forms of the verb, 
as : break, broke, breaking, broken. They are written upon 
the board, where a list soon grows, with distinct columns. 
It must be remembered that this is simply a method to cor- 
rect speech, not a grammatical learning of conjugations ; 
consequently, if the pupils speak of the " second form," the 
" fourth form " of the " word," there is no need to feel 
troubled. The aim is to learn to use these forms, and the 
arrangement in columns helps a child greatly in remember- 
ing which form is used without a " helping word," which one 
requires such assistance. Incidentally, much grammar is ab- 
sorbed, even names of forms coming easily to the lips of 
some of the pupils. Sentence making, in which the various 
forms of the verbs are used, is an important and frequent 
part of this drill. So also is the simple saying of the four 
forms ; calling quickly for the fourth form, the third form. 

A beginning is made in this grade to teach pronouns sys- 
tematically. The idea of a subject of a sentence is developed 

in order to learn to use I, he, she, correctly. 
Pronouns ^^ . , , , 

No attempt is made to teach the grammar 

of these subjects, for third grade children are being dealt 

with; but even these little folks quickly get the subject sense 

in a sentence. At this stage of the work little or nothing is 

said of me, him, her, as these forms are probably being used 

correctly. 

The number of common abverbs in the vocabularies of the 



68 METHODS IN TEACHING 

children can be greatly increased in this grade by combining 

them with the verbs in the verb drills, thus 
Adverbs 

developing in the child's mind that idea of 

relation between verbs and abverbs that is imperative to the 

correct use of the latter. In these drills care is taken to 

avoid predicate adjectives, as, he looks neat; they would be 

very confusing to these children. 

The use of relative pronouns is taught by introducing them 

into the vocabularies of the children for connectives in the 

sentence building exercises. If *'and,'* "and," 

from the children, something must be given 
in their places. Relative pronouns, conjunctive adverbs, and 
well-chosen conjunctions are given, and the children grad- 
ually pass into the use of fairly well-formed complex sen- 
tences, without, however, being troubled about their gram- 
matical analyses. If relative pronouns are grouped together, 
if on certain days a list of conjunctive adverbs is placed upon 
the board for use in sentence building, if the teacher is sys- 
tematic in the presentation of this material, the children will, 
however, acquire their knowledge systematically, and later 
grammatical work is made easier and more practical. Com- 
bining sentences by these aids permits considerable individ- 
uality and is fascinating to the pupils. A Hst of relative 
pronouns and two or three short sentences are put upon the 
board : 

who I have a book. I am reading from the book, 
whom Then the children combine: I have a book from 
which which I am reading. I am reading from the book 
what which I have. Have you the book from which I 
that was reading? 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 69 

After a little help lists of relative pronouns written upon the 
board are used readily and quickly by the pupils. Parti- 
ciples are made a part of the child's vocabulary by the same 
method. Thus complex sentences become familiar to the 
children and the sentence structures are steadily improved. 

Some kind of composition work is given every day. Nar- 
ration predominates, interspersed with frequent descriptions. 

Correction of the papers is carried along- on 
Composition . , , ., r 

two Imes : self-correction by the pupils, after 

the lapse of a day or two, of errors that have been subjects 

of drills ; correction by the teacher of errors that come from 

imperfect knowledge, those that will in later months become 

subjects of drills. It is not necessary to correct all papers. 

Experience gained by frequent writing will soon be manifest 

in self-correction or in avoidance of errors, especially if, 

before beginning to write, attention is called to the common 

mistakes so that they shall not appear in the papers. 

Illustrative Third Grade Papers 

I 
Questions and Answers 
A question is a sentence that asks something. A question 
is followed by a question mark. Lucy, are you going home 
now? 

II 

Definitions 

A statement is a sentence that tells something. I have 
a pen at home. 

An initial is the first letter in a name. May Agnes Tier- 
ney, M. A. T. 



yO METHODS IN TEACHING 

An apostrophe shows ownership and omission. Mary's 
coat is on the rack. Don't you Hke to go up town? 

Ill 
Special Words and Homonyms 

Will you pare the potatoes? My pencil is broken. She 
is going to my house. Let me see it (not " leave me," etc.). 
Mamie writes well (not " good "). Their yard was dirty. 

IV 



Break 


broke 


breaking 


broken 


Tell 


told 


telling 


told 


Go 


went 


going 


gone 



I have broken my cup and vase. I told you the answer. 
She has gone away. I have given you some candy. My 
pen is broken. 

FOURTH YEAR GRADE 

In the oral training reproductions, descriptions, and nar- 
rations are continued, with careful attention to vocabulary 

building- and to sentence structure. Personal 
Oral ...,,,. 

Languaee criticisms by the listening pupils are encour- 

aged so long as they are helpful and sym- 
pathetic, but they are checked if they become unkind, sar- 
castic, or personal. The children are still so young, how- 
ever, that it is very easy to guide these class corrections along 
friendly, helpful lines, thus making them sources of great 
assistance and enthusiasm. In the technical work abbrevia- 
tions are continued, and quotations, simple and broken, are 
frequently drilled upon. Capitalization and punctuation 
progress by the addition of new rules as demanded by the 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 7 1 

work and development of the pupils. Constant effort is 
made to bring the children into mechanical ease and accu- 
racy in the use of the rules already learned. 

Many adjectives, appropriate for nouns in common use, are 
suggested and used. Gradually, these displace those that 

have been used loosely or incorrectly. Chil- 
Adjectives 

dren need this drill upon adjectives, as is 

indicated by the exaggeration and inaccuracy in their use 
heard on all sides. The comparison of all the adjectives in 
use is learned, adding materially to the vocabularies. Plurals 
of all nouns used by the children are taught. The posses- 
sive singulars are given, but the possessive plurals are left 
for fifth grades unless the pupils show themselves especially 
proficient in acquiring them. 

The principal parts of all the verbs learned in the third 
grade are reviewed, and as many more are taken as the chil- 
dren can master. The individual teacher 
Verbs 

must be the guide here, for classes differ 

greatly in language development and abilities. The follow- 
ing are some of those considered most important for this 
year's drills: shall and should, distinguished from will and 
would ; may and might, distinguished from can and could ; 
lie and lay; ride, set, hear, lead, sink, drink, swim, hide, 
show, shoe, throw, rise, know, spring, slide, write, shake, 
drive, grow, choose. As in the third grade, the conjugation 
of the present and the past tenses is learned as are the prin- 
cipal parts of all the verbs studied. Sentence drill with the 
verbs is the important part of the work. 

A sufficient study is made of the sentence to see clearly 
the subject, predicate, and object. Clauses are used, as in the 



72 METHODS IN TEACHING 

third grade, by combining short, simple sentences by means 
of relative pronouns, participles, and conjunctive abverbs. 
Sentence Phrases are formed with prepositions, par- 

Structure ticiples, and infinitives. Phrases and 

clauses are used both as adjective and as adverbial modi- 
fiers. The teacher speaks of the difTerent sentences as sim- 
ple, complex, and compound ; the phrase and the clause are 
given their proper names, but no attempt is made to have 
the children discriminate. If they learn to distinguish one 
from the other accurately much has been gained ; but there 
is no effort to teach these grammatical points, for all that is 
desired is that the pupils shall be using naturally and cor- 
rectly all three forms of the sentence. Whatever more is 
learned about them by fourth grade pupils is pure gain. Of 
course, in putting clauses together, it is often necessary to 
suggest which relative pronoun to use, or which connective, 
but this is exactly what the drills are for. Lists are fre- 
quently written upon the board, from which the pupils select 
words that will unite smoothly the short, simple sentences 
into one complex whole ; but this should not be done until 
the pupils have been well drilled on the individual words 
that make up the list. 

In all this applied grammar care must be exercised con- 
stantly or the teacher will be trying to teach technical gram- 
mar. Such a mistake would be fatal to the 
Grammar ^^^^ purpose. The children may and do 

absorb much grammar, but to hold them, 
down to its acquirement would seem useless to them, 
would divert the attention of pupil and teacher from the real 
object, and would probably create intense distaste for the 
work. The purpose is to improve the ordinary speech of 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 73 

the child by many suggestions and corrections, which are 
made far more effective by being grouped around simple, 
elementary principles of grammar. The children see rea- 
sons for the corrections ; several of a kind are grouped 
together, thus forming a basis for a rule ; systematic arrange- 
ment leads to an assurance through which the children are 
often guided into self-help, where incidental corrections 
would have left them helpless on generalizing out into new 
corrections. The pupils are not retarded in this progress if 
the teacher uses proper grammatical terms, adverb, noun, 
pronoun, verb, adjective, phrase, clause, sentence. Indeed, 
it is a help rather than a detriment in the work itself and 
in the preparation for coming years. 

In the composition work original writing is more clearly 
differentiated from imitative than heretofore. The latter 

includes reproductions, copying, dictations. 
Composition .„ . ^ . , , , . , 

illustrations given by the teacher either orally 

or by reading. Its purpose is well defined in the mind of 
the teacher ; it is to aid in developing ease and grace of style, 
accuracy in the mechanics of writing, and improvement of 
the vocabulary. Reading a choice description or a vivid nar- 
ration from some good writer and commenting a little on 
how the effect was produced is an incentive to personal 
efforts in similar lines. Original writing is the purpose of 
a course in composition, but the steps leading into it are 
made easier and quicker for all, while the road itself is 
opened to many, if these imitative steps precede attempts at 
originality. A desire for individuality can be fostered by 
leading the children to enjoy the most original papers and 
by seeing the weakness when someone accepts another's 
thought in place of his own. Papers should be frequent. 



74 METHODS IN TEACHING 

but short, and subjects should be so definite that pupils know 
just what they are expected to do. 

The mechanical divisions of an article are the sentence 
and the paragraph. A knowledge of each should be culti- 
vated in the fourth grade. The possibility of expanding and 
contracting sentences has already been suggested to the chil- 
dren by third grade work on combination of several short 
sentences into one long one. Still more can be done in the 
fourth grade by changing adjectives and adverbs into phrases 
and clauses, or vice versa; or by using participles, relative 
pronouns, and subordinating conjunctions. The weak sen- 
tence structure, so noticeable in the speaking and writing 
by children, is more frequently ignorance of better forms 
that might be used than carelessness or disinclination to 
employ more elegant constructions. There should be special 
thought given to sentence structure. The children must be 
guided for some time along one line of progress, as the use 
of relative pronouns ; then another must be taken up, as 
dependent adverbial clauses ; then still another must be made 
familiar ; and all the time that which was first learned must 
not be neglected. While working over any special phase, 
have the pupils correct their own papers in that one respect, 
so that they will grow observant. 

The sense of the paragraph can be more easily developed 
by having the pupils write two or three paragraphs on a 
subject, than by calling for one. Selection and division of 
material is imperative to the formiation of paragraphs ; writ- 
ing only one gives no chance for this thoughtfulness. The 
teacher must not become discouraged in showing again and 
again the proper use of the sentence and paragraph. Both 
are very difficult, even for older pupils, and these younger 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 75 

ones must move slowly in the comprehension of what each 
means. The pupils are not yet mature enough to discrimi- 
nate very accurately, but they are learning to use both cor- 
rectly. 

The pupils should learn how to correct and improve their 
own papers. Sentence and paragraph structure, especially 

the former, choice of words, the possibility 
Correcting , ,. , . , , 

Papers ^^ expandmg and contractmg thoughts, con- 

tinuity, harmony in the material chosen, are 
all matters for criticism. Pleasant beginnings and compre- 
hensive conclusions should be discussed in class ; witty and 
earnest papers should be read aloud for all to enjoy and 
appreciate; the general style of a paper should be analyzed 
occasionally, in a manner adapted to the age of the pupils. 
These efforts at composition should be frequently criticised, 
every few days, but the general impression left with the 
pupils must be that of guidance and inspiration, not of dis- 
couragement. Unfriendly attacks upon the creative powers 
used in composition tend to make sensitive pupils afraid of 
further writing, and careless pupils antagonistic toward all 
composition. Criticism, especially with such young children, 
should be constructive, not destructive. 

Pupils complete primary work with the fourth grade. 
There has been no textbook preparation in formal grammar, 
but by systematic application of some leading principles 
during the primary years, the children have passed the first 
difficulties of technical grammar and have made a fair begin- 
ning in composition. Five of the parts of speech, noun, 
pronoun, adjective, adverb, and verb are well known by use, 
and most of the children are talking about them by their 
proper names and recognizing them readily in their ordinary 



76 METHODS IN TEACHING 

uses. Verbs are conjugated in the indicative mode, the prin- 
cipal parts of the common verbs are known. Descriptive 
adjectives are compared and used. Many adverbs are used 
with a fair degree of accuracy, and most of them can also 
be compared and used in the forms thus presented. Sin- 
gulars and plurals of nouns in ordinary use have been learned, 
and their possessive cases, both singular and plural, are in 
constant and generally correct use. The nominative and 
objective forms of the personal pronouns are known and used 
correctly by the majority of pupils who will pass out of the 
grade at the end of the year. Several relative pronouns are 
in use, although the pupils know but little about them tech- 
nically, probably not even their name. There is also some 
acquaintance with prepositions and conjunctions ; with the 
former in connection with the work on pronouns ; and with 
the latter through the efforts to improve sentence structures. 
Adjective and adverbial clauses are in frequent use, with a 
very clear idea that they belong to the noun or the verb 
modified, but there is no technical knowledge whatever 
about them. 

Illustrative Fourth Grade Papers 

I 

Comparison of Adjectives 

bad worse worst near nearer nearest 

good better best many more most 

late later latest sweet sweeter sweetest 

II 

Correction of Errors noticed by Pupils 
" I saw a wagon full with men." I saw a wagon full 
of men. 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 77 

" I will haf to close the window/' I will have to close 
the window. 

" After a while some boys come along in a wagon." After 
a while some boys came along in a wagon. 

" One man had a small popular tree in a flower-pot and 
the tree was about two feet tall." One man had a small 
poplar tree about two feet tall in a flower-pot. 

" It aint planted." It isn't planted. 

" I aint going." I am not going. I'm not going. 

" I seen her go by." I saw her go by. 



CHAPTER VI 

ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE WITH GRAMMAR 
GRADES 

FIFTH YEAR GRADE 

After a brief but careful review of the work of the pre- 
ceding years in punctuation, the children are held respon- 
sible for what they have learned. They 
must use what they have been taught, the 
teacher does not stand ready to put in whatever is forgotten 
by the child. Several new rules for the comma are now 
demanded by longer and more involved sentences, some 
of which also call for one or two of the simpler uses of the 
semicolon; even the colon is needed by a few pupils. 
These should all be given as needed, accompanied always 
by an abundance of illustrative drill. Although but fevvr 
pupils are writing sentences requiring semicolons and colons, 
the needed rules for their use should be given to avoid 
incorrect punctuation by those few ; other writers may also 
be led into strengthening their sentence structures in order 
to employ the new marks after their uses have been ex- 
plained. Wrong ideas of the relation between the parts of 
a sentence may be imbibed if these rules are not given. It 
is still necessary to drill on the use of quotation marks, the 
punctuation of quotations, and the possessives of nouns in 
both singular and plural. Their mastery is not easy, and, 
although they have been in use since the first grade, new 
conditions spring up, some of which seem stranger to the 

78 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 79 

children than at first thought appears possible to teacher or 
parent. One must be in close touch with the workings of 
these young minds to comprehend the nature and reality of 
their difficulties. 

The correction of vulgarisms and common errors must be 
carefully continued. The child's own pride in ready and 

cultured language is coming more and more 
Applied ^Q ^j^g j^gl q£ ^^^ teacher; although, at the 

Grammar 

same time, there has to be overcome the 

feeling that is peculiarly strong in these middle grades, that 
the school, in some occult way, is not life, real life, and that 
its lessons are for the schoolroom only, to be forgotten as 
soon as the outside air is reached. To counteract this feel- 
ing, it is well to keep in touch with some form of everyday 
life that stands close to the pupil. Show what carefully 
selected language is used by some persons, known and 
respected by the pupils ; read an extract from a speaker who 
will appeal to them, calling attention to the fact that the 
verbs are properly used, that pronouns are in their right 
cases; various means can be employed to impress upon the 
children that good language, far from being a schoolroom 
bug-a-boo, is a recognized necessity of cultured life. 

The grammatical drills are beginning to take on a more 
formal nature. A conjugation is called a conjugation; the 
indicative mode is thoroughly learned by all ; 
Grammar distinction between shall and will is im- 

pressed, although a teacher must not be 
flattered with the thought that it will be definitely learned; 
present and past participles are used in phrases as adjectives, 
adverbs, nouns, and in their verbal significations, in order 
to show their flexibility. While the technical element is 



80 METHODS IN TEACHING 

growing in these presentations, they should still be con- 
sidered as language rather than grammar ; but if pupils see 
that the third and fourth forms of verbs have a variety of 
uses, future grammar is simplified. Adjectives and adverbs 
are frequently used in drills, and their comparisons should 
now be well understood, both with the use of er and est and 
of the words more and most. Nouns should be readily 
recognized, and their plurals formed. Pronouns should be 
declined, in order to ensure their correct use. Frequent oral 
drill, in which every pupil of the class is involved, must be 
given the nominative and objective cases. This includes a 
fairly clear idea of prepositions and of the subject and ob- 
ject. The use of who for persons and of which and that 
for animals and inanimate things should be taught. The 
teacher must be constantly on guard not to be drawn ofif too 
far into formal grammar ; the pupils are still immature, and 
practice, or application, should far exceed theory or memor- 
izing. The grammar should be presented, for the pupils 
are old enough to understand many of its simpler principles, 
but there is no great loss, as yet, if the technical reason for 
a correction or for a drill is forgotten, provided the appli- 
cation is remembered. The explanation has served its pur- 
pose in clarifying the correction; it will be remembered by 
many pupils, and wholly forgotten by only a few. 

Composition progresses constantly. To write well, a 
pupil must be permitted to enjoy creative work ; individuality 

must have expression or writing will be a 
Composition , _ , , 

bore. Encouragement and growth mean 

pleasure to teacher and pupil ; discouragement opens up a 

cheerless prospect for both. Before beginning to write have 

the pupils tell what must be remembered in mechanical 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 8 1 

lines; then let the writing go on freely, without every 
thought being hampered by the idea that the critical teacher 
is peering over the shoulder, or that the paper " wont pass " 
if the periods and spelling are not correct. Even a mature 
writer of ability, buried in the inspiration and enjoyment 
of his creation, may make technical mistakes that he will 
stare at later in astonishment ; but he will correct every page 
of his manuscript with the utmost care before permitting it 
to go to the public. Give the child an equal freedom of 
creation, teach him an equal patience in correcting. 

Subject matter is comparatively easy to find, for it is 
the handling of the material that is of importance. A paint- 
ing from a master's hand may be only a weary laborer halt- 
ing for a prayer in obedience to the call of the bell in his 
village church. The canvas may be small. It is not the 
subject, it is not the size, that makes the painting immortal; 
it is the treatment. The subject for a child's composition 
must be as simple as are the experiences of that child. His 
training is in expression. A wandering bee, buzzing in the 
window; a bird, twittering over the spring nest; a dog, 
coaxing and fawning for his evening meal; a horse, cross 
and rebellious at being cinched up under the saddle, — is 
there any end to the thoughts about which a child will talk 
or write? Give ideas, not subjects. The former inspire, the 
latter deaden. Do not trouble about the subject, a paper 
can be named after it is written. 

Then there are real and imaginary letters, narrations, de- 
scriptions, reproductions, and simple character sketches. 
Children readily express personal opinions about poems and 
stories. All papers should be short, sometimes a few lines 
will be all that can be given. The clothing of the thought 
7 



82 METHODS IN TEACHING 

in many words should be carefully guarded against, lest 
mere verbiage takes a hold upon the writer. The study of ! 
figures of speech in the literature of the year will probably I 
lead to some embellishment of the pupils' papers. While 
these efforts should meet with encouragement, they also need 
guidance, so that a florid, unnatural style is not developed. \ 

The study of the sentence and the paragraph can not be 
relaxed, for the power of the children over them is weak ; 
and vacillating. Study the effect produced by long and 
short sentences; illustrate changes in emphasis resultant j 
upon transposition of words, phrases, clauses. We are deal- j 
ing with children, and only childish results can be expected ; \ 
but there should be a steady, even if slow, growth in power ! 
over written expression. | 

Fifth grade pupils need to know the subject, predicate, ; 
and object of a sentence in order to discriminate in the use i 
of nominative and objective cases. A faint conception of these I 
features of a sentence begins in the more favored fourth i 
grades; pupils of fifth grades, even where the language 
difficulties are greatest, make this knowledge clearer, not 
for grammatical purposes, however, but for use. Some 
illustrative papers, uncorrected, follow. 

I \ 

The subject of a sentence is that part of a sentence which 

denotes that about which we are thinking. ; 
The predicate of a sentence is that part of a sentence I 
which asserts something about the subject. 

The strong man works. \ 

The sharp knife cuts, ' 

The watchful dog harks. \ 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 83 

II 

A story about the raindrops, written after a friendly class 
conversation on the subject; that is, after oral composition 
came the individual writing. The paper is uncorrected, just 
as it came in the first draft from the pupil, except that the 
effective original illustrations are omitted. 

The Raindrops 

The little raindrops were playing merrily on their velvet 
carpet one day long, long ago when all of a sudden they 
began to sing, hop, and dance because they were leaving 
their home and were going to live on the earth. 

"Oh! such fun we will have," exclaimed one little rain- 
drop. Another said, " we will dance on umbrellas, and play 
hide-and-seek on the house tops." 

These little raindrops were merry wee creatures dancing, 
jumping, and singing to one another. 

One little raindrop flew on a wee baby plant and it sent 
the raindrop down deep into its roots to help it to grow tall 
and pretty. 

The paper was handed back to the child for personal 
correction, and the most noticeable errors were seen and 
corrected by the writer herself. Some changes were made 
in the language of the last paragraph by the teacher, in order 
to avoid repetition of words ; but the original paper, where 
the creative power was at work and the mechanical accuracy 
was slumbering a little, is the one given above. 

SIXTH YEAR GRADE 

Formal grammar from a textbook begins in this grade, 
but it should develop so continuously from the applied 



84 METHODS IN TEACHING 

grammar of the preceding grades that the pupil is always 
conscious of the direct and important relation between 
grammar and written or oral expression. The aims in 
teaching grammar are broadening by the time the sixth 
grade is reached. To speak and to write correctly have so 
far been the only purposes, but now there must come the 
recognition of the fact that many pupils continue their 
studies in higher institutions of learning, and that prepara- 
tion for work there must begin in the grammar grades. The 
textbook is now, necessarily, the basis of the year's work in 
grammar, and a well written, elementary rhetoric should 
be in the hands of the teacher for guidance in composition. 
The growing self-consciousness of pupils in the sixth, sev- 
enth, and eighth grades tends to weaken and shorten oral 
expression with many, but papers are often correspondingly 
better, because in writing there is a feeling of freedom from 
direct supervision and observation. 

There follows a summary of some thoughts by a sixth 
grade teacher^ on composition with her grade: 

The aim in this work is to apply the knowledge gained 
from a study of technical grammar to oral language and to 
written exercises. Much drill is given in the correct use of 
prepositions that are commonly misused, of pronouns, adjec- 
tives, and adverbs ; of the conjunctions as if and as though 
in distinction from the preposition like, so frequently used 
for them, as in the sentence, " It looks like it would rain." 
Several verbs belong also in this frequent drill, lie and lay, 
sit and set, and others that, in spite of careful oversight in 
lower grades, still exist in the vocabularies of the pupils in 

* Miss Margaret Meehan. 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE SS 

incorrect usage, or have returned into them through force 
of environment. 

In sentence structure, commencing with simple sentences 
containing adjective and adverbial modifiers, we develop 
phrases and clauses, and study compound 
Structure ^^^ complex sentences. For example: A 

golden wreath was given to the victor. A 
wreath of gold was given to the victor. A wreath that was 
made of gold was given to the victor. A wreath was made 
of gold and it was given to the victor. 

To make sentence structure plainer, we begin analyzing 
and diagrammmg sentences. At first only the simplest form 
of sentence, with only a word subject and a word predicate, 
is taken. Then follow sentences with simple word modifiers, 
then with phrases and complements. The compound sen- 
tence is treated next ; and, last of all, the complex sentence. 
All puzzling constructions are avoided, for the pupils are 
not studying diagramming, they are simply clearing away 
difficulties in sentence structure in order to speak and write 
more correctly. Analysis and the diagram are for them a 
means to an end, not the end desired. 

In developing the singular and plural numbers of the dif- 
ferent persons and cases of pronouns, the following device 
is found helpful : 

took books with 

Pronouns , , , . , 

took books with 

The children are told to fill in the blanks in the first 
sentence with the pronoun standing for the person or per- 
sons speaking, thus: I (or we) took my (or our) books 
with me (or us). The second is to be filled in with the 
pronouns standing for the person or persons spoken to; a 



86 METHODS IN TEACHING 

third, with the pronouns for the man or men spoken of; a 
fourth, with the pronouns for the woman or women 
spoken of. 

Considerable drill is given on the correct use of two 

pronouns in one construction, as: Hattie spoke to 

and . and are going. They invited 

and . When the children are puzzled, as frequently 

happens, they are helped out by being told to put in one 
pronoun at a time, and then to put in the two together. 
There is often heard such a form as, " He gave it to you 
and I." The test in these cases is to try the pronouns alone. 
No child in the sixth grade would say. He gave it to I. 

The pupils are also drilled in the use of who in its differ- 
ent cases. For example, is going? did you see? 

In the latter sentence the children are told to find out the 
subject, and even to diagram the sentence, so that the sub- 
ject and object are clearly pictured. Time is also taken to 
show that the same word may be used as different parts of 
speech, as: salt, the noun, verb, and adjective. 

Throughout the term of ten months we work in com- 
bining several short sentences into a larger one, using the 
pronoun, adverbial, and verbal connectives. In paragraph- 
ing, such work is done as is within the capacity of the 
pupils; both sentence and paragraph structures are kept 
constantly before the pupils, but the drills come at varying 
intervals, so that they shall not be monotonous. A brief 
study is made of the stanza, developing the difference be- 
tween it and the paragraph. Letters, both friendly and 
business, are written, with careful observation of the proper 
forms, and many suggestions as to what may be put into the 
body of a letter. 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 8/ 

Subjects for compositions are made as varied as possible 
within the scope of the children's knowledge : some familiar 
work or exercise ; the noted pictures, studied during the term 
from reproductions on the walls of the schoolroom, or from 
the small Brown and Perry pictures; original stories of 
some event; phrases suggestive of some occurrence, as, in 
the woods, under an old oak, beside the stream; a list of 
words to be used in a story, as, toad, cellar, pile of bricks, 
pan of milk, coal-man ; a familiar occurrence, as, a Stockton 
flood, spearing wood, a tramp in the woods. 

That use is the keynote of the sixth grade language les- 
sons is shown by the number of the compositions in the 
year's notebooks. These are first drafts, self-corrected, or 
revised by the teacher, three necessary phases of progress 
in composition. There are also many lists of grammatical 
points, as exercises on pronouns, adjectives, adverbs, prin- 
cipal parts of commonly used verbs, diagrams of easy sen- 
tences, and application in illustrative sentences of the points 
studied. A few of these exercises are appended. 



Combining Sentences 

He drew a picture of his home. It showed the house. 
He was born in it. It also showed the barn. The orchard 
was also to be seen. 

The picture he drew of his home showed the house which 
he was born in, the barn, and the orchard. 

The orchard, barn, and the house he was born in were 
all shown in the picture he drew of his home. 

He reached his home. He gave orders. He was not to 



S8 METHODS IN TEACHING 

be disturbed. He went to bed. He tried to sleep. He 
tried in vain. 

When he reached home he gave orders not to be dis- 
turbed. He went to bed and tried to sleep but in vain. 

Combining sentences, begun in the third grades, is also 
a frequent device in teaching sentence structure, showing 
the use of relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs, and 
in giving a general suppleness in handling sentence forms. 

n 

Use of Who, Whose, and Whom 
To whom did she speak? Whose book is that? Whom 
did you see ? Who is going ? Of whom did you write ? To 
whose house did you go? Whom did she know? Whose 
pen is that? At whom are they looking? To whose house 
did you go? Whom is writing? 

An interesting fact is illustrated by the above exercise. 
The drill has been largely upon whom and zvhose, and there 
has developed in the child's mind a little vagueness as to the 
use of the nominative who. This indicates the necessity of 
clearing up the sense of the nominative, and of drilling upon 
who until confusion disappears. 

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE 
During the seventh grade the pupils continue the textbook 
study of grammar, keeping the work in close touch with the 
practical needs of ordinary speech. Composition exercises 
are frequent, and considerable inspiration is drawn from 
the writers studied in the literature throughout the year. 
Maturity of selection and treatment become more noticeable ; 
expressions of opinions, analyses of subjects, comparisons 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 89 

of authors and of characters, are made more promment 
than in the lower grades. Narrations and descriptions are 
studied carefully in order to acquire an apt and forceful 
style. Individuality of treatment, without eccentricity or 
absurdity, is always encouraged. 
A seventh grade teacher^ says of her work : 
The aim throughout the year is to gain power in origi- 
nality and readiness of expression, and to foster a literary 
appreciation of good authors. During the first part of the 
year careful reviews are made of the punctuation and 
capitalization studied in lower grades. Reproduction exer- 
cises are continued, material being drawn principally from 
the history. During the early part of the term much of the 
written work consists of reproductions, as they furnish 
opportunities for putting into practice the principles that 
are to be impressed. The mind, not being busy with original 
thought, is left free to exercise care in grammatical con- 
structions, punctuation, paragraphing, sentence formation. 
These exercises tend to make the accuracies of writing more 
and more mechanical, a condition to which teacher and 
pupils are consciously trying to attain. At the same time, 
the pupil is gaining power of expression and a certain bal- 
ance and proportion in style from studying the writings of 
great authors. During some of the literature periods there 
is paraphrasing, for the purpose of learning to make clear 
the thought of the author with little repetition of his lan- 
guage. Such exercises are both oral and written. There 
are also some book reviews during the year ; they are prac- 
tice in giving in concise form the thoughts of an author, and 
they also train the pupil in forming and expressing an 

' Miss Ella Daly. 



90 METHODS IN TEACHING 

opinion of an author and of his writings. As a preparation 
for writing, the teacher occasionally puts a few suggestive 
questions on the board; or the pupils talk over the subject 
in class; or an outline may be developed and left in sight, 
especially if the paper is not to be composed largely of per- 
sonal opinions, or if it is to be long and somewhat involved. 

In writing narratives one device is to ask for some 
event in the pupil's own experience, as: Trying to keep a 
secret. The trick that failed. An afternoon visit. One 
day the class was asked to write an account of a runaway 
that had occurred as it might appear in a daily newspaper. 
Several members of the class were called upon to read their 
papers, after which the question was asked, " Which account 
do you consider best?" Three papers, which, by the way, 
were really the most creditable, were the favored ones. The 
question, " Why ? " called out a spirited discussion, in which 
many merits and demerits were laid bare. As the criticisms 
were kindly, they resulted in stimulating the desire to write 
more articles of the same nature, and the next newspaper 
report was not only less irksome, but it was also much more 
successful and businesslike. 

Considerable attention is given throughout the year to 
letter forms and to original thought of various kinds. Im- 
aginative writing is interesting to a large part of the class, 
and is very helpful, provided it is kept along healthy lines. 
In connection with the history study of the battle of Lexing- 
ton and the reading in literature of the ride of Paul Revere, 
the pupils were asked to imagine themselves living on the 
outskirts of Lexington on the eighteenth of April, 1775, and 
to tell the story of that thrilling night and the following 
day : the approach of Paul Revere, the stir occasioned in the 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 9 1 

home, some loved ones up and away at the country's call, 
the anxiety and interest in the battle, the result of the con- 
flict, and the return of the patriots. 

It is not deemed necessary, or even advisable, for the 
teacher to correct all the written work, although many sets 
of papers are so treated. Sometimes the 
of Papers pupils themselves read over their papers a 

few days after writing, and it is surprising 
how many of their own errors they are able to correct. One 
method of class correction is to place upon the board for 
class criticism, by which is meant only friendly criticism, 
several paragraphs from the work of various pupils, without 
giving names. Such extracts are taken up, sentence by sen- 
tence, improvements being suggested by the class. Very 
often some of the best ideas come from the writers of the 
papers, showing that more careful or more deliberate con- 
sideration is all that is necessary for better work. In this 
form of criticism, where self-consciousness is engendered 
under even the most favorable circumstances because of the 
publicity of the corrections, teacher and pupils make favor- 
able comments on good points noticed. Appreciation is as 
helpful as adversative criticism. If one is striving toward a 
higher standard, and knows what he is trying to do, many 
weaknesses drop off of themselves, and the attitude of the 
worker towards his work is reversed, — ^he is urged onward 
by consciously adding strength, not depressed by being 
turned constantly toward his mistakes. Sometimes one of 
the best papers is copied on the board, to show that glaring 
errors do not always occur, and as an incentive to bring 
up the average work of the class. 

One of the most valuable forms of correction, or one of 



92 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the farthest-reaching in its effects, is for the teacher to pass 
from desk to desk while the writing is in progress, calHng 
attention to mistakes as they are made, the pupils correcting 
immediately. The force of the correction seems to be more 
easily comprehended by both teacher and pupil. This plan 
is most feasible in reproductions, where little interruption 
to the thought is to be feared. 

In these days one mentions formal grammar almost with 
an apology for the words ; but, no matter what the fads of 
the day, a scholar always has a wholesome 
Gra mar respect for the essentials of English gram- 

mar. If every child could be brought up 
where he heard only correct expressions, he might never 
have to hesitate between right and wrong forms of speech ; 
but, as such ideal conditions rarely exist, all pupils need 
careful training in grammar and in its application. I think 
that it was Holmes who said: "Grammar is the humble, 
oft-despised, but truly loyal hand-maid of thought's best 
expression." 

During this year, formal grammar takes a recognized 
place in the curriculum, and a fairly thorough study is made 
of the parts of speech with their forms and modifications. 
When any part of speech is taken up its various uses in a 
sentence are carefully dwelt upon, and illustrative sentences 
are constructed. That is, the noun as subject of a verb; 
object of a verb, participle, infinitive; a predicate noun; 
object of a preposition; possessive modifier of a noun or an 
infinitive; appositive modifier of the subject, object, predi- 
cate noun; as an adverb. The other parts of speech are 
treated in the same way, and the vocabularies of the pupils 
grow visibly more flexible through the knowledge gained. 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 93 

The time devoted to language and grammar Is twenty- 
five minutes daily. Compositions based upon other subjects 
are written during the periods given to those branches. 
" Evangeline's Search for Gabriel," " A Day at Ichabod's 
School," belong to the literature period; "The Battle of 
Lexington," " Our Flag," are history writing ; " The Story 
of Belgium," " Eve of Waterloo," are geography papers ; 
but any of them may come Into the language period for 
correction and discussion as to treatment. 

Several seventh grade drills, taken from the notebooks of 
pupils, are given below. 



Use of May, Can; Might, Could 

Statements to be remembered: May asks and gives per- 
mission. Can implies ability to do something. 

Can I go ? means. Am I able to go ? 

You can go, means. You are able to go. 

May I go? means. Have I permission to go? 

You may go, means. You have permission to go. 

I, myself, know best whether or not I can do a thing. 
Whether or not I may do a thing usually depends upon my 
receiving permission to do so. 

I hope I can go, but I am not yet well. 

I hope I may go, but my father may not consent. 

You may go, Charles, and see whether you can unlock 
that door. 

Mr. Brown told John he might stay over night. 

I wish you could get your lessons without help from 
others. 



94 METHODS IN TEACHING 

III 

Common Errors 

Lie lay lying lain. 

Lay laid laying laid. 
Lay requires an object. 

Lie, meaning to rest, never requires an object. 
The autumn leaves lie scattered on the pavement. 
The rain will lay the dust. 
I found a horseshoe lying in the road. 
Mother has lain down to rest. 
Many poets have been laid to rest in Westminster. 
The snow will not lie long on the ground. 
The men are laying a concrete sidewalk. 
Do not leave your hat lying in a chair. 
Will you lay aside your work? 
Lake Ontario lies between New York and Canada. 

IV 

A Nest in a Pocket (Uncorrected) 
One spring day, a bird in search of a place to build a nest, 
was flitting about our back yard. This bird was a sparrow, 
not very beautiful I thought, but she seemed so restless. 
Finally she peeped into the granary; she stayed there 
quite a while, and then I noticed her carrying in grass and 
stuffs, and of course I knew what she was doing; but I 
kept right still and did not let anybody know. No one knew 
where she built her nest, and I know nobody could guess. 
It was in the farmer's coat pocket. 

There she built her nest and in a few days more I heard 
a tiny chirp up in the granary where the grain was stored. 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 95 

We let them alone until one day the farmer missing his coat, 
thought he would go up into the granary and get it. When 
he stepped on the floor of the loft he heard a most awful 
chirp and then such a fluttering. 

Although he needed his coat he let the birds stay there 
until they could fly. He went home and told his wife who 
advised him to leave them there. 

A few days later the mother and all the family were seen 
flying about, and so we knew she had left the pocket. She 
came up to the door one day and just the same as said, 
" Thank you," for the nest which she had borrowed. 

The farmer felt very proud of the coat and showed it to 
nearly every one who came to his house. He left the coat 
up in the granary to see if another bird would want it for 
a nest. 

The creative spirit expresses itself beautifully in this 
paper, and the mechanics are not very faulty for a seventh 
grade child. There is abundant suggestion in it for the 
teacher in guiding the whole class. " A most awful chirp " 
calls for the selection of an appropriate adjective. Several 
places need punctuation study. Some of the pronouns need 
to be attached more closely to their antecedents. A few of 
the sentence structures can be strengthened. Seventh grade 
pupils should be using the connective that more frequently. 
Care should be taken in such corrections that the teacher's 
personality is not impressed upon the literary side of the 
paper, but that the individuality of the writer is preserved. 

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE 

In this, the last year of the elementary grades, the work 
is governed largely by textbooks. The grammar is com- 



96 METHODS IN TEACHING 

pleted, and the composition is aided and guided by a begin- 
ner's rhetoric and composition textbook, in the hands of the 
teacher. Plenty of practice, so arranged as not to become 
monotonous, is given in writing. Pupils are held to what 
has been learned in grammar and writing, just as they 
would be in any other subject. Mistakes in known capi- 
talization, punctuation, spelling, are looked upon just as 
inaccuracies in multiplication would be considered in 
arithmetic. 

There follow some extracts from a paper on language, 
submitted by a teacher in an eighth grade :^ 

Composition is along the lines of invention, description, 
reproduction. Numerous quick pencil sketches are re- 
quired; these are discussed in class, or privately if the 
errors are special rather than general. The necessity for 
unity is discussed, and the means of obtaining it. One way 
of investigation is reading from good authors. The pupils 
note the points that, in their opinion, make the description 
strong; they tell the effect upon their own imaginations; 
they analyze as well as they can; they discuss the way in 
which the description grows. After this consideration by 
the class, papers are written, in which the pupils try to 
embody some of the essential points that have been noticed. 

For a subject on which to write after such a discussion 
something familiar is suggested, some pleasing feature of 
our own surroundings, perhaps. The pupils are asked to go 
to the place, to think about it, to study it while before it, 
and to try to make their observations and ideas real to others 
by means of pen and paper. In narration, an account of 
some occurrence on the playground or in town may be called 

* Miss Belle Mitchell. 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 97 

for. This may be talked over in class, so that the points 
stand out clearly, then a quick sketch is asked for. Pupils 
who did not witness the event write it up from the talk, 
while those who saw it are expected to give it the vividness 
of an eye-witness. 

All the pupils keep their written work for the year in 
portfolios. Occasionally, the class period is devoted to self- 
study and criticism, by looking over these papers and writ- 
ing down the observations made. Such information as the 
following is frequently given by the self-critics: 

" I am careless in the use of commas, of 's, and of quota- 
tion marks." " I often use the wrong form of the pronoun 
and verb." " I do not place my phrases and clauses so as to 
express my meaning clearly." " I put two paragraphs into 
one." " My paragraphs lack unity." 

It is needless to add that such a search into one's own 
weaknesses is often the most effective cure. 

From many eighth grade papers a few are chosen illus- 
trating drills in sentence structure, one of the particular 
points for the year ; others show special features of training. 

I 

Sentence Structure 

The poorly constructed sentence is given first, followed 
by the recast, sometimes obtained by concerted class action, 
sometimes through correction or suggestion by the teacher, 
while sometimes it is the individual effort of the child. 

a 
Just a short distance from the pavilion is the palace, with 
8 



98 METHODS IN TEACHING 

its long arcades and ornamental columns, and its gardens 
which are called the Generalife. 

My sentence sounds as if the gardens were the Generalife 
instead of the palace. 

Just a short distance from the white pavilions is the pal- 
ace, or Generalife, with its long arcades, its ornamented 
columns, and its gardens. 

h 

At these missions were where the Indians built their 
homes, and it was there that they were converted to the 
Catholic religion, to cultivate the soil, to do carpentering, 
and to build adobe houses. 

The sentence is so poorly constructed that the meaning 
is not clear. 

It was at these missions that the Indians built their homes, 
were converted to the Catholic religion, learned to cultivate 
the soil, to do carpentering, and to build adobe houses. 

Second correction: It was at these missions that the 
Indians built their homes, learned to cultivate the soil, to do 
carpentering, and to build adobe houses. It was here also 
that they were converted to the Catholic religion. 

II 
Use of Adverbs 
Sentences taken from various papers by the pupils. 
We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 
It is impossible continually to be at work. 
The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 
Not only he found her busy, but pleased and happy even. 
Rule to guide in the correction of the above errors : Place 



ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE 99 

adverbs where there will be no doubt what word or thought 
they modify. 

Corrections 

We should always prefer our duty to our pleasure. 

It is impossible to be continually at work. 

The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion. Or, The 
heavenly bodies are in perpetual motion. 

He not only found her busy, but even pleased and happy. 
Or, He found her not only busy but even pleased and happy. 

LOFC. 



CHAPTER VII 

WORD STUDY 

One charm in a ready speaker lies in his mastery of 

words. Whether this power is natural or acquired it is the 

growth of years. Observation, accuracy. 
Power Over 
^ffQ^^^ use, are the means by which it is built up. 

Observation of new words; accuracy of 
meaning and pronunciation; frequent, familiar use in con- 
versation and writing. Children begin their word studies 
with phonics, which should be continued through three or 
four years, until a thorough foundation has been laid for all 
ordinary pronunciations and spellings. The dictionary and 
analysis of words carries forward this systematic acquaint- 
ance even into the high school, where language studies sup- 
plement the work begun in the phonics of the first grade. 
Drills in phonics are daily exercises during the first three 
years in school. The first thought is to secure distinct artic- 
ulation and accurate pronunciation, and, by 
Phonics . . , , 1 

providing a key to language, to prepare the 

children for independent, self-reliant reading. Both the ear 
and the eye must be trained. The ear must learn to recog- 
nize sounds readily, through slow pronunciation, or sepa- 
ration of a word into its sounds ; ear training should precede 
sight training. The eye must learn to know instantly the 
letter, syllable, or word presented to it. For this purpose 
every primary room should be provided with cards, on 
which are the letters, phonograms and sight words to be 

lOO 



WORD STUDY I 01 

taken up in the daily drills of the year. Type words are 

made the bases for the accumulation of many lists of words 

in the first three or four grades. 

From the first acquaintance with words careful attention 

is given to their spelling, one of the essentials in a school 

course. Spelling^ can not be learned inci- 
Spelling 

dentally; much can be taught in connection 

with all written exercises, but a regular place should be pro- 
vided on the program for persistent daily drill on selected 
words. A carefully chosen list for every grade is a neces- 
sity. It is the core of the work in spelling, and should be 
made up of a stock of common words from the vocabularies 
of the children. It should not be so exhaustive as to prevent 
the teacher from adding other words that are needed from 
day to day. 

The majority of pupils learn to spell most accurately 
through the use of the eye ; many, however, acquire a surer 
knowledge through the ear ; all are assisted by speech. The 
best results are secured by appealing to the mind through all 
these avenues of approach. The unit of pronunciation is 
the syllable, and no method has produced better readers or 
spellers than the old-time oral spelling with its pronunciation 
of syllables. 

Pupils are trained to avoid guessing at spelling. In the 
primary grades, if they do not know how to spell any word 
needed in their writing, they are encouraged to ask help 
from the teacher; in the grammar grades, they consult the 
dictionary. Teachers keep lists of words frequently mis- 
spelled, and the children are encouraged to make notes of 
words which they have missed. Occasionally some pupil's 
list is taken as the basis of the day's spelling. In all grades, 



102 METHODS IN TEACHING 

as an incentive to self-criticism, pupils sometimes make 
up the list of words for the lesson from those that they feel 
ought to be known, but which are really troublesome. The 
names of the days, months, seasons, holidays, objects in the 
schoolroom, articles of clothing, household utensils, things 
bought at a grocery store, occupations, words alike in termi- 
nations, words illustrating a certain sound of a letter or 
diphthong, words having a common syllable, are suggestions 
for interesting and important spelling lists. All unfamiliar 
words are used in sentences, oral and written. Many words 
aie defined as well as used. The common homonyms are 
carefully taught, associated with the meaning, and so pre- 
sented in writing that the one will not suggest the meaning 
of the other. 

The pupils are led to formulate inductively the more im- 
portant rules for spelling, such as: retaining or dropping 
final e; doubling a final consonant; retaining or changing 
final y. Before taking up these rules the pupils must be 
able to distinguish clearly between vowels and consonants. 

The study of phonics leads naturally into word analysis. 

In the grammar grades word analysis is phonics, grown into 

a scholar, investigating the history and 

. , . radical make-up of the words that, in the 

Analysis 

primary grades, were his playthings as he 

formed them from letters and phonograms. Anglo-Saxon 
prefixes, suffixes, and roots are taken first, as they are sim- 
pler and more frequently found in the vocabularies of the 
children; but Greek and Latin elements, as they occur, are 
used in an elementary way, as : f^/^-phone, tele-grz^h., tele- 
scope; geo-graphy, tele-graphy, hio-graphy, ortho-graphy. 
After attention has been called to such a syllable, short lists 



WORD STUDY IO3 

are made of words in which it is found. These Hsts are 
usually left on the board for several days, so that the words 
sink into the memories, and so that new words can be added 
as suggested by the children. This work is generally very 
interesting, pupils hunting eagerly for more words to add 
to the lists, thus, unconsciously, adding rapidly to their vo- 
cabularies. The treatment is not formal or mechanical, nor 
is it in the nature of textbook presentation. To the children 
the lesson seems to be suggested by the reading; but the 
teacher really has in mind a definite plan that aids in the 
selection of certain words and the exclusion of others. 
Affixes are most readily taught, but root syllables are also 
frequently made bases for lists, as: artj art-istic, art-ist, 
ar^izan, artificial. 

There should be regular lessons, at least once a month, 
taking the place of some exercise in language or literature. 
These lessons should be so carefully planned that they 
progress from month to month. Too much must not be 
attempted. Thorough knowledge of a little is power, a 
smattering of much is weakness. 

FIRST YEAR GRADE 

The first step is to train the beginner to recognize the 
various sounds of which a word is made up. The name of a 
familiar object is pronounced slowly, as, 
Trainine c-a-t ; the pupil recognizes the word, pro- 

nounces it himself, so as to give the three 
sounds ; then he gives it as a whole, but trying to hear the 
sounds. Many words are given in the same way, those 
being chosen which are familiar and that have distinct 
sounds, easily separated and reunited. The teacher gives 



I04 METHODS IN TEACHING 

action words; such as, jump, run, skip, sing, cry, separating 
them into their sounds, the pupil performing the act as 
soon as he recognizes the word. The pupils pronounce 
words in a similar manner for their classmates to perform 
the action, or for the teacher or pupils to guess. This is a 
very important part of the work, requiring much time and 
patience. Its mastery by the pupils means quick recognition 
of sounds; hurried and inaccurate training leaves the chil- 
dren incapable of taking this first step in phonics, and sub- 
sequent work will be weak and full of errors. Games, fre- 
quent changes of teacher and pupil in giving sounds, action 
words, guessing contests, all tend to keep the interest from 
lagging, until the pupils are led into a high degree of 
accuracy in recognizing words from their sounds and in 
separating one sound into several. Children even begin to 
notice the inaccuracies of pronunciation, as, in for ing, kin 
for can, although wholly dependent upon the teacher in 
this respect. 

When the child recognizes quickly the word as a whole 
from its sounds, and can separate a word quickly into its 

^, sounds, work begins with phonosframs. 

Phonograms ^ f s 

Some phonogram, as at, is chosen. When, 

as In this case, it is a complete word, the children use it as a 

word in sentences, until the teacher is sure that they know 

just what the word is and how to use it. The children get 

the sounds, a-t, by slow pronunciation. They are drilled to 

associate thoroughly the letter with its sound. The letter 

is made and the sound called for ; the sound is given, and the 

children are asked to give or find the letter; they write the 

phonogram. 

When the teacher is convinced that the phonogram is 



WORD STUDY IO5 

known, word building begins. Ttie picture oi a cat is shown, 
and the word is placed upon the blackboard. The sounds 
are given, the children discovering almost immediately that 
cat contains the same combination, at, with which they have 
just been working. A hat is shown the children, the sounds 
of the word are given, and the word is quickly classified with 
cat and at. The accumulation of words now proceeds rap- 
idly and pleasantly. The phonogram at being well known, 
the drills are really to teach the children the consonant 
sounds that precede in the various words, cat, rat, Nat, hat, 
mat, bat. The children must become thoroughly familiar 
with these consonants, for much depends upon the knowl- 
edge now gained. 

New phonograms, as, it, et, ut, ot, follow. Every day's 
lesson is introduced by a three or four minute drill on those 
already learned, sets of cards being a convenient way of 
conducting a rapid recitation. As lists of words are made 
out, it is well to have the pupils define the words they give, 
especially if there is any probability that they are giving 
sounds in place of known words. Although the definitions 
may be crude, the vocabularies will be strengthened by the 
new familiarity with the words. 

After the study of the phonogram at, there are taken up 
those formed with the vowels and h, as, ah, eh, ib, etc.; 
then with d, as, ad, ed; with g, as, ag; with m, as, am; with n, 
as, an, en. The pupils are now ready to study the long vow- 
els. Many of the words already listed can be used, as, at, ate; 
fat, fate; mat, mate; met, mete; pet, Pete; hit, bite; not, 
note; cub, cube. Other sounds of the vowels can now fol- 
low, and diphthongs begin to appear. 

In spelling, the children first learn to distinguish forms 



I06 METHODS IN TEACHING 

and to see the word. Careful attention is given to this in 

the different subjects, — reading;, drawing. 
Spelling CO 

numbers. The first real attempt at spelling 

is to reproduce the word by copying from the blackboard. 
This is done with the cardboard letters with which every 
teacher is supplied ; later the word is copied upon the board 
by the child. After much preliminary work of this kind, 
flash spelling is introduced and continued throughout the 
year. Words and simple sentences are dictated. 

The names of the letters are used only incidentally at 
first; but as the child becomes familiar with the long and 
the short sounds of the vowels and with the consonant 
sounds, there are associated with the characters their alpha- 
bet names. When a pupil leaves the first grade he should 
know all the letters by name and be able to give them in 
order. 

SECOND YEAR GRADE 

The first work of this year is to review carefully what 
was done in the preceding grade, for little folks forget 
easily. For new drills some of the sounds 
that were only touched upon in the first 
year are used, as: a in ask; oo in stoop and in look; u in 
rude ; ph in cipher ; gh in laugh, and others that proved too 
confusing during the first lessons. This is an individual 
matter with every class, depending upon conditions often 
external to the schoolroom. Abundance of material is found 
in the words of the day's lessons in history, literature, nature 
study, reading, numbers. 

Copying exercises and flash spelling are continued 
throughout the year. There are oral and written lessons in 



WORD STUDY 10/ 

Spelling every day. Words and simple sentences are dic- 
tated. Many lists are used from the vocabularies of the 

^ „. children and from the various lessons of the 

Spelling 

day. Words of more than one syllable are 

divided into their parts. Pupils in advanced grades often 
make the mistake of dividing words anywhere, because 
they are ignorant of the proper divisions. This can be pre- 
vented, in part at least, by training the children from the 
first to recognize the syllables of a word In spelling and in 
pronunciation, and often in lists for writing. The use of 
the hyphen is not necessary, the word is spaced, joy ful ly. 
If a division comes at the end of a line the hyphen is used. 
The meanings of simple prefixes and suffixes are easily 
studied, and, although much is forgotten by these little folks, 
so much is retained that the effort is well worth making. 
Some of those used are, ing, as in going, coming; er, in 
faster, nearer; est, in sweetest, hottest; less, in careless, 
homeless ; ness, in kindness, sickness ; fid, in careful, useful. 

Contractions, as don't, can't, are expanded to find out 
what they really are made up of. Synonyms, homonyms, 
and definitions help interweave the word study and the 
language work. 

The following is summarized from a year's work with 
second grade pupils:^ 

As in the first grade word study generally means phonics 
and spelling. Fifteen minutes are given to phonics daily 
throughout the year. Ten minutes daily are given to writ- 
ten spelling, five minutes to oral spelling. Lists of from ten 
to fifteen words are given during the first part of the year; 
later, the number Is increased to eighteen or twenty. Two 

* Teacher, Miss Flora E. LaRue. 



I08 METHODS IN TEACHING 

or three sentences are used in every written lesson, in order 
to present some of the words from the lists in their connec- 
tion with other words and in sentence meaning. During a 
large part of the year a period of fifteen minutes a week 
is given to a spelling match. In this, as in all oral spelling, 
all words must be divided into their syllables, which are 
pronounced as spelled. 

The first two weeks of the year are devoted to a review 
of the sounds and names of the letters. Beginning with a, 
the sounds of the vowels, diacritically marked, are placed 
upon the blackboard. These are pronounced carefully by 
the children, who also give lists of words containing the 
sounds. The set of phonic cards supplies a means of rapid 
oral drill. 

In the second month, the study of final y is begun. The 

pupils are accustomed to calling the vowels sisters, and the 

consonants brothers; they know that there 
Final Y 

are seven sisters and many brothers. This 

device, whose usefulness soon passes, is very helpful at 
first, when so much depends upon distinguishing between 
vowels and consonants, but while the process is still difficult 
for such little children. Many words are shown the chil- 
dren ; as, boy, boys ; baby, babies ; play, plays. After some 
study it is discovered without the teacher's help that words 
ending in y with a "sister " before it add s in the plural ; 
but that if the final y has a " brother " before it, y changes 
to i and es is added. 

With the help of the teacher, so that no mistakes are 
made, a list of plurals is made out of words ending in y. 
Word building can now be greatly enlarged, and such lists 
as the following are made: try, tries, tried; play, played. 



WORD STUDY IO9 

player, plays; gay, gayer, gayest. Word building with 
words of this kind is given constant attention throughout 
the year. 

During this same month word building with ing is com- 
menced. The first words taken are those in which the 
syllable is simply added, as in play, playing ; 

;; X, the next list is of words like come, coming, 

Suffix 

Ing where final e is dropped; finally, the words 

used are like stop, stopping, where the final 
consonant is doubled. Having already learned that final e 
is dropped on adding the suffix ing, the pupils now learn 
that it is dropped upon adding any suffix beginning with 
a vowel; as, bake, baking, baker, baked, bakes. That is, 
as the little folks say, " Two sisters do not stand together 
in these places, they want a brother between them." A 
great deal of attention is also given to words doubling the 
final consonant; as, fit, fitting, fitted, fitter. Words of this 
class are the most difficult of all to master ; they need much 
patient drilling for more than one year with the majority 
of pupils. 

Some very simple prefixes and suffixes are studied to 
show the meaning which they give to words and to impress 

their spelling. The ones usually selected 
Prefixes ^^^ r^j JQyf^ji . /^^e homeless ; un, unkind ; 

Suffixes I J • ^ J , M J- 

RQ^j^g a, ashore. There is easy word buildmg 

with roots. Some simple word, as truth, is 
taken from a reading lesson and derivatives are called for. 
The pupils enjoy this work greatly, and lists are quickly 
made up. They readily give such words as truthful, truth- 
fully, truthfulness; the negative forms are given with just 
as much ease, untruth, untruthfully, untruthful, untruthful- 



no METHODS IN TEACHING 

ness. If the children are told that a certain word or affix 
is to be studied the next day in class, they delight in bring- 
ing in lists. These are sometimes surprisingly long and 
complete, resulting in a remarkable increase in the size of 
the child's vocabulary and in the accuracy of its use. 

Lists of words are frequently marked as to syllables and 
pronunciation. Punctuation and capitalization in the sen- 
tence writing are carefully watched. Early in the year 
the children begin to use ink in writing the daily lessons; 
this calls for great care, for all scratchings and repetitions 
are counted as errors. 

No brief summary can reproduce the work of a year, but 
the above suggests its scope and spirit. In the hands of an 
earnest, inspiring teacher, who sees the value of knowledge 
for its own sake and for the power that it gives a child, 
even phonics become deeply interesting to many pupils and 
exceedingly practical for all. If up to this time the chil- 
dren have been carefully trained in their phonics and word 
studies, if the phonograms have been thoroughly learned, 
if frequently met groups of letters, as Hon, have been drilled 
upon until absolutely familiar to the children, if diacritical 
and accent marks have been in constant use, difficulties in 
pronunciation are about ready to slip away into the past. 
The teacher must be the guide and help a year or two longer, 
then the dictionary will become the proper tool for the 
student's own use. It is surprising how much the children 
can learn to do In these first two years and how keenly they 
enjoy their progress and accomplishments. 

In the second grade there is a variety of exercises ; among 
them are many lists of words, marked and unmarked, for 



WORD STUDY 



III 



spelling lessons; sentences in which the words for spelling 
are used (I.) 5 illustrative use of certain affixes (11.) ; add- 
ing ing (III.) ; lists formed upon some given root syllable 

(IV.). 

I. 

Polliwogs eat insects. 

They become frogs. 

Buttercups are now in bloom. 

The teacher has given me a pencil. 

Our lessons keep us busy. 

I have been reading a fairy story. 

Have you much work? 

XL 



Ish means like. 


Less means without 


Un means not. 


child ish 


mother less 


un like 


self ish 


sleep less 


un done 


fool ish 


home less 


un told 


salt ish 


father less 


un able 


girl ish 


care less 


un buttoned 


baby ish 


friend less 


un written 


boy ish 


pain less 




clown ish 


hope less 




Er means one who. 


Er means more. 




teach er 


hard er 




play er 


sweet er 




danc er 


near er 




dig ger 


firm er 




sweep er 


clos er 




catch er 


high er 





THIRD YEAR GRADE 

Material for word study, either as phonics or spelling, 
constantly surrounds the teacher; in fact, it is so abundant 
that the whole subject is frequently neglected because the 



112 METHODS IN TEACHING 

task of classification and systematic use seems too vast. 
First of all, it is the common words that should be made 
usable for the children in as simple and practical a manner 
as possible, for the most frequent mistakes in pronuncia- 
tion and spelling are in the words that are in most general 
use. How frequently one hears " ud " for would ; " I'd a 
done it," for I'd have done it ; " callin' " for calling, and 
so on through an endless list of pronunciations, while the 
number of misspelled words is equally perplexing. There 
is no way of eliminating these errors except by vigorous, 
unremitting treatment, and the earlier it is begun the bet- 
ter. If the word work and the language lessons have been 
well done during the first two years, the pupils are already 
struggling consciously with several of the most flagrant 
errors, and an excellent basis has been laid for correct Eng- 
lish. These word studies give definite reasons for the re- 
quired pronunciations and spellings, and association with 
other words aids greatly in memorizing forms and sounds. 
English is a difficult language to learn under the best of 
circumstances, and children need all the aid that can be 
derived from carefully planned word lessons. 

The third grade begins with definitely arranged reviews 
of the sounds learned in the preceding grades, listed in 
words adapted to the growing powers of the pupils. The 
new words of a day's lesson are put upon the board, with 
the syllables indicated and the sounds marked for pronun- 
_^ . ciation wherever it is deemed necessary. 

The children are drilled upon these lists so 
that mispronunciations are avoided with many pupils and 
words. A constant watch is kept for words that in every- 
day conversations are mispronounced or slurred by the 



WORD STUDY II3 

children, and these are drilled upon frequently. Five min- 
utes of such drill every day of the year will work wonders 
in correct pronunciation, and, incidentally, in spelling also; 
for words clearly written and properly enunciated accord- 
ing to syllables are not ordinarily misspelled except by very 
careless pupils. 

Spelling is carefully attended to in both oral and written 
exercises every day. Words are given in lists and in sen- 
. tences. Pupils are held responsible for the 

words found in the day's lessons, so that 
the habit of noticing new words and of retaining old ones 
is constantly encouraged. Compound words that do not 
require the hyphen are included in the spelling lists, for 
this is a much abused part of correct word writing. Some 
new affixes are studied, such as: under, tlnderdone; well, 
welcome; /v, manly, nicely; er (one who), worker, builder; 
ed, learned, shouted. This material should be carefully 
listed by the teacher, so that the work for the month or the 
year is in mind. It varies greatly according to the devel- 
opment of the class, but it is always to be found in abund- 
ance in the subjects read or studied by the children. 

FOURTH YEAR GRADE 

During this year the pupils become acquainted with all 
divisions of letters, — vowels, consonants, their various 
sounds, and their combinations into digraphs and diph- 
thongs; also with such equivalent sounds as a in ate and 
ey in they ; e in even and i in machine. Calling attention 
to these points and making a few lists of illustrative words 
obviates many of the difficulties of spelling. The simple 
rules of phonics, to be found in any good manual on the 

9 



114 METHODS IN TEACHING 

subject, are made familiar to the children before the end 
of the year. They are not thoroughly learned, it is true, 
for the pupils are not ready for this step, but there is formed 
with them that general acquaintance which must precede 
later drills for possession and mastery. 

Oral spelling is given every day in the week, if time per- 
mits. In addition to words from the adopted speller, lists 
g ,,. are made from the various studies, from 

daily conversations, and, very insistently, 
of such words as have been generally misspelled by the 
pupils. Only constant diligence and patience on the part 
of both teacher and pupils can make good spellers of many 
children. English is full of phonetic etymological puzzles. 
Prefixes and suffixes are given occasional lessons, based 
upon the vocabularies of the children and upon any other 

source from which lists of practical words 

Studies ^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ "P* Common roots are no- 

ticed, thoughtfully defined, and lists of 
derivatives made. Even some roots of foreign origin, 
especially from the Latin, occurring in words frequently 
used, are studied, thus throwing unexpected light on mean- 
ings and spellings. If these exercises are kept easily within 
the abilities of the pupils, they are very helpful for adding 
to the vocabulary, acquiring a correct and discriminating 
use of words, and fixing accurate spellings. Lists of words 
are marked diacritically by the pupils ; the syllables are in- 
dicated. Simple rules of phonics that have already been 
drilled upon in preceding years are learned; such as the 
value of final e in pin, pine ; bat, bate ; nap, nape. 

An adopted text-book is used in the spelling, but words 
are also chosen from all other subjects. Dictated sentences, 



WORD STUDY 



"5 



two or three in every lesson, and about thirty words form 

the daily assignment. Lists of misspelled words are kept 

by both teacher and pupils for weekly re- 
Spelling . ^ , , 

views. From two to four times a month 

lessons in homonyms are given, consisting of ten or twelve 
sentences dictated by the teacher or the pupils. Several 
rules for spelling are developed during the year. Some 
may be entirely new to the pupils, others may be the con- 
summation of the inductive reasoning of preceding months 
or years. 

In word analysis, simple affixes, in, un, a, less, ness, ish, 
let, are used in forming new words ; or words having these 
prefixes or suffixes are chosen from the lessons, their mean- 
ings are given, and other words having the same syllable 
are suggested. 

Some fourth grade analyses of words are also shown 
here. 

a. 



delight ful 


full of delight 


leaf less 


without a leaf 


a fire 


on fire 


plumb er 


one who plumbs 


un happy 


not happy 


un certain 


not certain 


use less 


without use 


use ful 


full of use 


a shore 


on shore 


bright ness 


h. 

the state of being bright 


sad ness 


the state of being sad 



Il6 METHODS IN TEACHING 

joyful ness the state of being joyful 
full ness the state of being full 

Words ending in e preceded by a consonant should have 
the last letter dropped on taking a suffix beginning with a 
vowel. 



bite 


biting 


come 


coming 


give 


giving 


have 


having 


hope 


hoping 


live 


living 


lose 


losing 



FIFTH YEAR GRADE 

The pupils are now old enough to develop understand- 
ingly and usably the most important of the rules for spell- 
ing, a step rendered easier by the work in phonics and word 
analysis that has been done in the lower grades. Many 
of the rules will be but wording and putting into easily 
remembered form the practice of the preceding years. 

Systematically arranged drills are found in 
Spelline text-books on spelling, where words are 

usually classified as to sound, form, use, 
and meaning. These lists are supplemented constantly by 
words selected from the various subjects studied, and from 
conversation vocabularies. The dictionary now becomes 
the frequent aid of the pupils in spelling and pronouncing, 
and careful training should be given in the use of this valu- 
able language tool. 



WORD STUDY 11/ 

The children are probably acquainted with many of the 
familiar prefixes, suffixes, and roots. Pleasure and interest 
in such lessons is fostered if they are ac- 
Analvsis companied by short talks on the people and 

the countries from which the words came, 
showing that words, like people, can travel long distances, 
bearing with them lasting traces of their original homes. 
By the time the child has finished the fifth grade, he should 
be familiar with the following: 

Anglo-Saxon prefixes : A, after, all, al, be, for, fore, mis, 
out, un, under, well, wel. Suffixes: ar, ard, dom, ed (d 
or t), er, est, ful, head or hood, ing, ish, less, ly, ness, s or 
es in plural, 's or ' in possessive, some. 

Latin prefixes : ab, ad (with the change of letter depend- 
ent upon the first letter of the root to which it is affixed), 
bene, circum, contra, subter, re, semi. Suffixes: able, ess, 
eer, er. 

Greek prefixes: ex, hemi, tele. Suffixes: ist, ise, ize. 

At the beginning of the fifth year the pupils purchase 
their own dictionaries, and they also have free access to the 
unabridged edition. They must be taught 
Dictionary ^^"^ ^° ^^^ these new books, which, with- 

out instruction, long remain sealed, like 
the prophecies of old. The teacher calls attention to the 
alphabetical arrangement of the words, then to the second 
letter, ba before bea, be before bi ; then to the third letter, 
bar before bat. The children are trained to open quickly 
to the desired place, every one in his own dictionary, by 
asking for A, for M, for any section, and even for first or 
last part of the section devoted to any letter. This may 
seem almost childish training, but one only needs to com- 



Il8 METHODS IN TEACHING 

pare the awkwardness and helplessness of some people with 
the accuracy and rapidity of others, to realize the effect of 
training and habit in handling the dictionary. The dia- 
critical markings may seem difficult at first even to a child 
trained in their use in class ; but a little explanation makes 
them perfectly clear. The use of the typical words at the 
bottom of the pages should also be noticed. 

The many definitions, varying from one another by 
shades of meaning, are puzzling to the children ; so also are 
the many abbreviations. A verb may be followed by v., t., 
imp., and pp. ; then come the languages through which it 
has passed into the English. All of this must be explained, 
if not to fifth grade pupils, then to those in the more ad- 
vanced grades. The definitions need to be considered, so 
that the children can discriminate among them; and atten- 
tion should be called to the help afforded by the punctua- 
tion. Occasional lessons should be given in definite ex- 
planation of the dictionary. " The unabridged dictionary 
is a much neglected book," but, by such studies, it takes 
its place as one of the most available and practical aids to 
the student. 

SIXTH, SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 

Throughout the last three years of the grammar grades 
the rules for spelling are developed inductively as rapidly 
as they can be illustrated satisfactorily, 
comprehended, and remembered. As in 
the preceding grades, material is found in the assigned text- 
book, the daily lessons in all subjects, and the new words 
noticed in the vocabularies of the children. The pupils are 
trained to notice constantly the spelling of new words found 
in the reading. In word analysis an accepted textbook is 



WORD STUDY II9 

completed, or such a portion of it as is considered suitable 
for grammar grades. New work is always presented 
through use, leading out into generalizations, the forma- 
tion of rules, and the classification of knowledge. 

There follow a few papers from pupils, giving a slight 
view of the work done. 

The various lists for the sixth grade are of the same 
general nature as those in the fifth grade. Some of the 
sentences illustrative of the use of words are here given. 

When Scipio died he left orders that his bones should 
not rest in a city which had proved so ungrateful as Rome. 

Cato ended every one of his speeches by saying, " Car- 
thage must be destroyed." 

Cornelia's jewels were her two sons. She was the 
daughter of Scipio Africanus. 

" Run for your lives ! " said Horatius, " I will keep the 
bridge." 

Gnats and mosquitos are very troublesome insects. 
They bother us in the summer. 

The governor is the chief officer of the state. 

The seventh grade notebooks contain drills in spelling, 
definitions, sound marking, homonyms, synonyms, and a 
variety of lessons in world analysis, some of which follow. 

I. 

Homonyms 

I heard the lowing of a herd of cattle. 
There are their books where they were put by the chil- 
dren. 



I20 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Sweating through every pore, the workmen pour the 
melted iron into the molds. 

A hale and hearty old man was hurrying along in the 
midst of the rain and hail. 

The rest may rest while I wrest the prize from him who 
would win it. 

11. 

Use of indicated words 

Conrad feigned to be a friend of Richard, but he was a 
traitor. 

The vein in his hand broke. 

These aquatic flowers are not very pretty. 

He came with an invincible army. 

III. 

Word Analysis 

a. Root word 

The Latin root pes means a foot. Ped has the same 
meaning. Many words are formed on this root. 

ped al belonging to the foot 

bi ped two footed animal 

quadru ped four footed animal 

ped dlar one who travels afoot 

ex ped ite to free the foot 

ex ped ition the act of expediting 

im ped iment hindrance 

The pedestrian stopped at our house for refreshments. 
The men sent an expedition to the New York colonies. 



WORD STUDY 121 

IV. 

Word Analysis 

b. Prefix 

The Latin verb cedere means to yield, to go. Cede and 
ceed are forms of the verb cedere, 

ac cede to yield 

con cede to go with 

ex ceed to go beyond 

inter cede to go between 

pre cede to go before 

pro ceed to go forward 

re cede to go back 

sue ceed to go beyond any one else 

Harvey Birch wished the Americans to succeed in war. 
Captain Dunwoodie was interceding for Captain Whar- 
ton. 

V. 

Word Analysis 

c. Sufhxes 

Judge, verb, to determine. 
Judge, noun, one who determines. 
Just, adjective, lawful. 

judge ship office of a judge 

judg ment being judged 

just ify to make right 

just ness the quality of being just 

just ly lawfully 



122 METHODS IN TEACHING 





Prefixes 


pre judge 


to judge beforehand 


ad judge 


to judge to 


re judge 


to judge again 


un just 


not just 


ad just 


to make right, to make just 



The above lessons are given without change from the 
notebook of the pupil, showing the seventh grade concep- 
tion of the meaning of the words as gained from roots and 
affixes. Prefixes and suffixes have been studied separately 
and in connection with simple words ever since the fifth 
grade, so that their meanings as used in the above exercises 
are not touched upon. They belong to the knowledge that 
is already fixed. New affixes are taken up from time to 
time as the occasion demands. Later language studies will, 
of course, broaden all this acquaintance with words. 

From the many lists in the notebook of an eighth grade 
pupil the following uncorrected exercises are chosen, illus- 
trating studies in homonyms, use of words in sentences, 
spelling and defining. Occasional lists are made of words 
frequently mispronounced; these are carefully marked as 
to sounds of letters and accented syllables. 

I. 

Spelling and Defining 
precurser one who runs before (precursor) 

accessory have access to 

itinerary from place to place 

alleviate to lessen 

hypocrisy deceive 



WORD STUDY 



123 



enunciate 

indelible 

Apennines 

asphaulton 

cognizant 

recommend 

Philippines 



act of enunciating 
not erasable 
mountains of Italy 

understood 
give authority of 
islands 

n. 



Alaska was formerly isolated. 
He will lubricate the wheel. 
They manipulated the books. 
He meditated deeply. 
She will participate in the event. 
Electricity is a subtle power. 
The school suppressed 2i laugh. 
She assumed a dignified air. 
The guide preceeded the party. 
They relinquished all claims. 



(asphaltum) 



(Preceded.) 



Gamble at cards. 

To gambol on the grass. 

The soil is barren. 

A German baron. 

Two quarts. 

A vein of quartz. 

A minor matter. 

A coal miner. 

A gilt frame. 

To confess a guilt. 



III. 

To sell at profit. 
A weather prophet. 
A boiled carrot. 
It weighs a carat. 
An easy lesson. 
Pain will lessen. 
To bathe in the surf. 
The serf was set free. 
A broad base. 
A bass voice. 



PART II 
ARITHMETIC 



CHAPTER VIII 

GENERAL AIMS: INTRODUCTORY THOUGHTS; SUM- 

MARY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF A COURSE 

IN ARITHMETIC 

Arithmetic in the pubHc schools should lead to definite 

results along two lines, — knowledge and power. The 

, , knowledge gained should be a sufficient 

Knowledge 

arithmetical basis for any occupation or 

profession entered by the pupil after leaving school. It 
should include the fundamental operations with integers; 
fractions, both common and decimal; percentage, with its 
application to reckoning interest. An important element 
of this work is the recognition of number as the " tool of 
measurement " in a concrete study of lengths, areas, vol- 
umes, values, and other relations liable to arise in after 
life. These topics, with an elementary study of accounts 
and common business forms, furnish ample material for the 
knowledge element of the subject. By the end of the 
eighth school year all pupils should be thoroughly grounded 
in the essentials just mentioned. 

Arithmetic offers abundant opportunity for training in 
habits of logical thought and exact statement; while the 

ability to form a clear-cut mental picture 
Power 

of the quantity represented by any num- 
ber, integral or fractional, is so important that it should 
be developed constantly. Its value is not confined to arith- 
metic, it belongs to all subjects. All judgments and infer- 

127 



128 METHODS IN TEACHING 

ences should be expressed completely and accurately. In 
this development of mental power no factor is of greater 
consequence than the solution of well selected problems. 

Measurement is the origin of the number idea. Conse- 
quently, from the first, the child is led to measure some- 
thing, to compute through measurements, 

__.„ and to think in terms of known value. He 

ments 

is to think as well as to measure, for 
** thought is the main thing in mathematics as well as in 
language." No matter whether the child is considering 
length, breadth, time, space, weight, or value, he can ex- 
press his thought in figures ; but he must never be permitted 
to work with the figures alone, separated from the magni- 
tude that is represented. To do so, is to deal with the 
abstract, an unnecessary, if not an impossible feat for the 
immature mind. If the child's difficulties are to disappear, 
he must see, actually or mentally, the thing that is to be 
measured or computed. Dimension measurements are 
drawn in some prominent place in the schoolroom, on the 
wall, on the board, where there can be marked off and 
preserved before the eyes of the pupils an inch, a foot, a 
yard, a square inch, a square foot, a square yard. The 
dimensions of the room, the building, the yard, are meas- 
ured and frequently mentioned. The length of a city block 
is learned in feet or yards ; the distance to some near-by 
public building is spoken of as a certain portion of a mile ; 
some well known object a mile away is located. These 
distances are referred to frequently, as is also some frac- 
tion or multiple of them, until their value is well recognized 
by the pupils. The children estimate and then measure 
accessible distances. They draw lines of estimated length, 



GENERAL AIMS 



129 



and then measure them to see how nearly correct their 
efforts are. This sense of magnitude is kept before the 
pupils for years, if necessary, until accuracy is gained. 
There is no need of permitting the exercises to become 
monotonous, if the teacher only uses ingenuity in varying 
the processes employed. The value of these actual meas- 
urements is immediately apparent if even advanced pupils, 
who have not had such training, are asked to draw lines of 
given lengths, or to estimate areas, widths, or capacities. 
They guess wildly, showing that the abstract figures, not 
the actual values, have absorbed their efforts. 

Training in analysis begins early in the course, starting 
with the simple reasoning from one to many and from the 

. , . many to one. When a problem is stated, 

Analysis ^ 

the first requisite is to find the starting 

point; the second, to see the steps by which the end is to 
be gained, — multiplication, division, addition. The child is 
not permitted to start his analysis until these points are 
assured, for not until the process is seen clearly can it be 
accurately performed. There is no objection to the indi- 
vidual methods of analysis developed by this kind of train- 
ing, provided clearness and accuracy are retained. More- 
over, if the pupil's expressions are awkward and inapt, he 
is glad, through the teacher's guidance, to adopt easier and 
more set forms of speech usual to analysis. 

Oral work is so important that from one-third to one- 
half the time for arithmetic is devoted to mental training. 

Every new topic is introduced orally, and 
Mental . , , , , , 

Arithmetic written work supplements the oral only 

when the numbers are too large or the 

processes too involved to be grasped readily. The pencil 

10 



130 METHODS IN TEACHING 

is used only on a problem that can not be solved without 
its aid. Pupils who understand the principles of arithmetic 
and can apply them to oral problems have little difficulty 
with arithmetic. The majority of the problems contain 
small numbers. Applicants for admission to our high 
schools and normal schools fail constantly on problems deal- 
ing with numbers of one figure. Pupils are trained to give 
and to solve original problems. The thoughtful reading 
of problems is emphasized in all grades. Pupils are led to 
forecast results, so that unreasonable answers are at once 
noted. In all grades many problems are given in which 
the processes to be performed are indicated by signs. 

Many of the problems given in all the grades are based 
upon prices of labor and material, for which teacher and 
pupils secure data from the store, the market, the mill, the 
post office, the lumber yard, the wood and coal yard, the in- 
surance agency, the tax collector, the transportation agent. 
The various ways of making change, of levying a street 
assessment, of collecting taxes, of marking goods, of depos- 
iting money in a bank, and of remitting money are inves- 
tigated. 

Business forms, especially letters, receive much attention. 
All pupils above the fourth grade should be able to write 
a thoughtful letter, correct as to form, spelling, punctua- 
tion, and capitalization in the superscription and conclusion. 
Tax receipts, insurance policies, money order blanks, 
checks, bills, receipts, notes, and other business forms and 
papers in daily use are brought into class for study and 
comparison. 

In all grades a minimum amount of required work is as- 
signed for all the members of the class, and sufficient 



GENERAL AIMS I3I 

optional exercises to keep the most proficient busy. The 
required work covers all the essential principles; and the 
elective work is made interesting, broad in its scope, prac- 
tical, and closely related to home and business affairs. 

It is claimed that the results obtained in arithmetic in 
many schools are not at all commensurate with the time 

e^iven the subject. No one doubts the jus- 
Assignments 

tice of the criticism. Consequently, fewer 

and more practical topics are assigned the various grades 
in our schools, and the time given to arithmetic is increased 
in every grade above the second. The elimination of obso- 
lete and impractical matter, combined with an increase in 
time, should lead to better results, more particularly if the 
following points are borne in mind by the teacher: 

Cultivate the spirit of self-reliance in the pupils. 

Give mental arithmetic its due proportion of time. 

Lead pupils to think of the conditions of the problems 
before " figuring." 

Give full attention to development lessons and to object- 
ive work. 

Lead the pupils by accurate observation into clear thought 
and exact statement. 

Have a definite plan for every lesson. 

Do not give conundrums. 

Require the pupils to think more and to depend less upon 
the teacher. 

Teaching arithmetic has passed through so many tor- 
mented phases of being that considerable valuable informa- 
tion is to be found in the way in which a modern course of 
study has come into being. This is so clearly shown in an 
article by Superintendent Barr of the Stockton schools, 



132 METHODS IN TEACHING 

published in " Primary Education," January, 1904, that 
part of it is here reproduced. 

" In May, 1892, a careful study of the conditions in the 
Stockton schools was begun to determine just what results 
were being secured in each subject in the 
^ ^g school course, the time given to the sub- 

jects, the grade when the pupils begin to 
leave school. Briefly, here are some of the facts shown by 
this investigation: 

" I. From one-third to one-half of the school day was 
given to arithmetic in grades one, two, and three. 

" 2. In the judgment of the majority of the teachers the 
pupils were not well prepared in the work. 

'' 3. The children could not read many of the problems 
that they were expected to solve, nor could they apply with 
a fair degree of readiness the number facts learned to sim- 
ple problems taken from their own experiences. 

" 4. In general, the training in other subjects, especially 
in reading and language, had not kept pace with the train- 
ing in arithmetic. 

" 5. Practically all pupils remained in school at least four 
years. 

" Obviously, the problem for 1893, even from the stand- 
point of arithmetic, was to emphasize reading and lan- 
guage so that the pupils could grasp the thought in the 
problems to be studied. This naturally led to the cutting 
down of the time given arithmetic; yet, to the surprise of 
all, the classes were better prepared in that subject at the 
close of the year than before. 

" This happy result led to the further emphasis of read- 
ing and language in 1894 and to a further cutting of the 



GENERAL AIMS 1 33 

time given arithmetic, and again did the work in arithmetic 

improve." 

" In 1895, all formal instruction in arithmetic was omitted 

from the first half of the school year, the time so gained 

being given to reading and language, based 
Incidental , , . , ^ 

-^Qj.]^ on nature study and on stories drawn from 

history and literature. In 1896, instruc- 
tion in number work was made incidental throughout the 
first school year. In 1900, the incidental period was ex- 
tended to include the first half of the second school year. 

" The results secured by the omission of formal instruc- 
tion in arithmetic in the first term of 1895, in the second in 
1896, in the third in 1900, showed clearly (at least to the 
observers in Stockton), that other subjects are much better 
adapted to the needs of the pupils during the first year and 
a half of school life than is arithmetic. The final results 
in 1903 have also demonstrated that, compared with 1892, 
the pupils, by the close of the third school year, can not 
only read better, spell better, use their mother tongue bet- 
ter, but that they are fully as well prepared in the mechan- 
ics of arithmetic, and are far readier in the application of 
what they have learned. 

*' In 1903, the following is the time devoted to arith- 
metic : 

" First school year, instruction incidental. 
Arithmetic ,, _. , , , 

jg rirst term, second school year, instruc- 

tion incidental. 
" Second term, second school year, thirty minutes daily. 
" Third school year, sixty minutes daily. 
" In the primary grades of the Stockton schools, the 
pupils are grouped into small sections for the study of such 



134 METHODS IN TEACHING 

essential subjects as reading and arithmetic. The number 
of sections is determined by the needs of the class, the 
teacher being the judge. With a class of 
-y^ j^ forty pupils the number of sections will 

vary from three to six and even to eight. 
Not only do the number of groups vary in the different 
rooms, but the number of pupils in each group and the 
time given to the group vary as well. In the drill work 
the group usually gathers around the teacher, and the rest 
of the class is given carefully prepared busy work in arith- 
metic, in drawing, or in language. This method not only 
enables the teacher to develop the child along the line of 
his needs, but it leads to self-reliant habits of study on the 
part of the pupils at their seats. 

" The following aims have been kept constantly in mind 
in teaching arithmetic in the primary grades in the Stock- 
ton schools: I. The securing of accuracy in 
^- all mechanical processes. 2. The applica- 

tion of the number facts learned, first to 
the experiences of the child, later to other experiences that 
he can readily grasp. 

" The incidental work of the first three terms is a prep- 
aration for the later systematic study of arithmetic. Only 
as the child feels the need of number in 

'^^^ expressing the relations that arise in his 

Incidental , , . , ,. , i . t^t 

Period other work, is number supplied him. Na- 

ture study, reading, drawing, and other 
studies furnish ample material for developing the number 
idea during these three terms. With their interest aroused 
through seeing the need of number, and with the maturity 



GENERAL AIMS I 35 

that has come through the three terms' work, the children 
are eager for number work. 

" Without seeking to exhaust the ' how ' of the incidental 
period, which is as varied as are the individuaHties of the 
teachers and the needs of the classes, the following are 
among the lines of work taken up during its last two 
years : 

" As number deals with the relations of quantity, eye and 
mind are trained in seeing relations, even during the inci- 
dental period. By means of objects in the 
Comparisons , , , _ , , , , 

schoolroom, of Imes drawn on the board, 

of surfaces, many indefinite comparisons are made. As the 
child's number sense develops, and he demands more defi- 
nite terms than * longer,' ' shorter,' ' higher/ * lower/ the 
common measuring units are introduced. 

" All pupils are supplied with rulers, one foot long, with 

sticks of various lengths, with cardboard squares, one inch 

square, with shoe pegs, etc. In the work 

lyT G3. su r G - 

jj^gj^^g in drawing the use of the ruler is soon 

mastered. The half, the fourth, and other 
simple fractional relations are as easily seen and mastered 
as are integral relations. The following exercises, selected 
at random, will give an idea of the work during the latter 
part of the first year and the first part of the second : 

" I. Measure sticks and draw lines as long, beginning 
with one inch. 

" 2. Measure a one-inch cardboard square. Draw it. 
Place two squares side by side. Measure and draw. 

"3. Place sticks so as to form a square, a triangle, an 
oblong. Measure and draw. 



136 METHODS IN TEACHING 

" 4. Draw a line, by judging, one inch long. Measure 
and correct. 

" 5. Draw a one-inch square, by judging. Measure and 
correct. 

'' 6. On blackboard draw, by judging, lines one foot long. 
Measure and correct. 

" Children enjoy the rhythm of counting. As they are 
brought into touch with the idea of number through com- 
- parisons, measuring, games, counting is 

made definite, not only in giving the con- 
secutive number names, but in applying them to correspond- 
ing groups of objects. The children are led to recognize 
instantly objects in unit groups of two, three, four, and five. 
In any work above five the smaller group units are used. 
This work is never given until the child has met with the 
number again and again in his nature study, drawing, or 
other studies. In training in the instantaneous recognition 
of unit groups, all sorts of objects are used, — dots, lines, 
marbles, flowers, boys, girls. Care is taken not to go be- 
yond the maturity of the child. In most cases the pupils, 
before the close of the incidental period, can count by ones 
and tens to one hundred and back." 

SECOND YEAR GRADE 

Second Term 

** With the beginning of the second term of the second 
school year formal instruction in arithmetic is begun. Ad- 

dition and subtraction are taught together; 

multiplication, division, and partition, to- 
gether. During the first three months of the term addition 
and subtraction are emphasized. 



GENERAL AIMS I 3/ 

" Discovery, through observation of the number fact to 
be taught; drill, to fix the fact in mind; application of the 
fact to the experiences of the children and to relations that 
they can readily grasp, is the order of instructioi^ usually 
followed in taking up the formal study of number. At this 
time the utmost skill of the teacher is required to know the 
content of the child's mind. When the child says that 4 
and 3 are 7, for instance, has he imaged 4, 3, and their sum, 
7 ? Does he see clearly the relation that 4 and 3 bear to 7 
or has he, parrot-like, repeated a sentence without meaning 
to him? Every pupil is led to discover the combinations 
and separations for himself, again and again, until he knows 
them. During this stage of the work the figure processes 
are kept in the background, and the number fact is dis- 
covered, applied, and emphasized. Figures are then intro- 
duced with good old-fashioned drill to fix the facts. 

" Training in the instantaneous recognition of the unit 
groups, 2, 3, 4, and 5, is continued. Clear mental images 

are formed. By this grouping the pupils 
Imagmg 

are led (assisted by objects whenever neces- 
sary), to image 6 as 3 and 3 ; 7 as 5 and 2; also as 3 and 
4; 8 as 4 and 4, and as 5 and 3. Subtraction is imaged as 
readily as addition. The same process of imaging in 
groups, followed by persistent drill, is used in taking up the 
work in multiplication, division, and partition. 

" As soon as four or five combinations are learned, col- 
umn addition is begun. In this work great care is taken 

by the teacher in preparing exercises, as no 
Addition combination is presented that the children 

have not already learned. The work in 
counting and writing numbers is continued within reason- 



138 METHODS IN TEACHING 

able limits, seldom extending beyond one hundred. The 

pupils count by I's, 2's, 5's, and id's, both forwards and 

backwards. 

" In applying the number facts learned, such common 

measuring units as the cent, nickel, dime; inch, foot, yard, 

square inch, square foot, cubic inch; pint. 
Measuring 
^jjj^g quart; pound; dozen, are constantly used. 

In so far as possible, the measuring units 
are used by the children themselves. Estimates by obser- 
vation and verification by measurement are an important 
factor of the work. Drawing lines and surfaces at the 
blackboard, modeling at the sand table, stick laying, string- 
ing beads, measuring water or sand, are among the exer- 
cises that may be noted in the various grades. 

'' The following from a second year plan book will give 
an idea of the use of the foot rule in the application of the 

number facts learned: 
jj^j " I. Addition. Measure a stick. Draw 

a line one inch longer; two inches longer. 

" 2. Subtraction. Measure a stick. Draw a line one 
inch shorter; two inches shorter. 

" 3. Multiplication. Take two sticks equal in length. 
Draw a line as long as the two together. As long as three 
sticks. Measure a cardboard square. Draw an oblong as 
long as four squares ; as two. 

" 4. Division. Measure a stick. Draw as many one-inch 
lines as equal it. As many two-inch lines. 

" 5. Partition. Measure a stick. Draw a line half as 
long. Draw one one-fourth as long. One and one-half 
times as long. 



GENERAL AIMS I39 

" 6. Estimates. Draw on the blackboard, by judgment, a 
line one foot long. Measure and correct. Two feet long. 
Half a foot long. Similar simple exercises are worked out 
for other measuring units." 

THIRD YEAR GRADE 

" In the third school year, the greater portion of the time 
during the first term of five months is devoted to addition 
and subtraction. Seeing, memorizing, applying, these are 
still the successive steps followed in presenting the work. 

" Objects are used occasionally, but only when the chil- 
dren need help in imaging the combinations given. A re- 
view of the combinations in addition and 
The 
Combinations subtraction, previously given, is combined 

with their systematic application to all pos- 
sible combinations within the number space no. As sub- 
traction is but the inverse of addition, the two are corre- 
lated, the emphasis, however, being placed on addition. 
Beginning with the combinations 2 and 3 (although any 
other combination will do as well), the pupils commence the 
formal work of the year as follows : 



3 


3 


3 


3 . 


3 


2 


12 


22 


32 .. 


. . 102 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


13 


23 


33 •• 


.. 103 

















then 



After the pupils have mastered these combinations, the 



I40 METHODS IN TEACHING 

work is reversed, and the corresponding combinations in 
subtraction are taken up. 

" Simple questions are now given, in which the pupils 
are led to apply the combinations formed with 2 and 3 to 
relations and measurements that they can understand. Re- 
turning to the combination work, the next step taken up 
is with 5 (2 and 3) and 4. The same work is given as that 
indicated with 2 and 3. Column addition is now begun 
with 2, 3, 4. Adding 10, 20, 30, etc., to the 2, the drill is 
continued until the pupils can add the columns accurately 
and quickly. 

" The third combination taken is 9 and 3. Here the 
pupils must be led to understand the increase by tens. 
After taking up all the combinations with 9 and 3 within 
the number space no, the pupils continue the drill with 
column addition, taking 2, 3, 4, 3, and adding successive 
tens to the lower figures as long as may seem best. 

" The multiplication tables are developed by addition, 
generally by means of rectangles or circles drawn on the 

board and divided into the proper number 
The 

Tables ^^ parts by the children. Division and par- 

tition are correlated with multiplication. 
When the child learns that 6X3 are 18, and that 3X6 
are 18, he can readily see that there are six 3's and three 
6's in 18; that one-third of 18 is 6, and one-sixth of 18 is 
3; also that two-thirds of 18 are 12, and that 12 is two- 
thirds of 18. When the children see how any particular 
table is formed, they are drilled in it, sometimes by se- 
quence, always by skipping about, until they know it. 
" Much of the drill work in multiplication is combined 



GENERAL AIMS I4I 

with addition. This is frequently done with the more dif- 
ficult combinations in addition. For in- 
Addition stance : 

^ith 2X9 + 7 = 

Multiplication 

3X9 + 7= etc. 

In real life a large part, in the schoolroom most, of our 
multiplication is combined with addition. There is econ- 
omy both of time and effort in such training, as well as 
excellent preparation for the work in long multiplication. 

" A thorough drill is given on inexact divisions, not only 
for the thought involved, but as a preparation for short 
division. As soon as the table of 2*s is completed the work 
is begun with short multiplication and short division. 

" In the application of the number facts learned, the com- 
mon measuring units are kept before the children. 
Through estimates and measurements of 
Arithmetic lines, surfaces, solids, and other magni- 

tudes coming within the experiences of the 
pupils, they are trained in seeing relations, both integral 
and fractional. When the measuring unit can not be 
handled by the pupils, they are given a clear mental picture 
of it. For instance, it is a mile from the Court House to 
East Street. John has walked the mile between these 
points in thirteen minutes; Henry has covered it on his 
bicycle in six minutes. In giving any problem involving 
miles, it is always related to some particular mile taken as 
a unit. 

" Children like to draw, to make things. This construc- 
tive faculty is made use of, not only in the third school year, 



142 METHODS IN TEACHING 

but in the first and second as well. In the third year rect- 
angles are drawn by measurements in developing the multi- 
plication tables. Many simple problems are 
Constructive 
^Q^]^^ given for blackboard and seat work, that can 

be solved by means of diagrams. Simple 
exercises in drawing to scale are given. Pupils are encour- 
aged to make things from paper, pasteboard, wood, accord- 
ing to definite measurements. 

" Through similar constructive work the pupils are led 
to add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions, no attention 
. whatever being given to processes. Here 

is the way four such questions, given as 
busy work, were solved by a pupil during the second school 
month of the third grade, the telling being preceded by 
drawings in each case: 

" I. I drew a line 2 J inches long. I added to it a line 
J J inches long. My line is 3 J inches long. 

" 2. I drew a line ij inches long. I drew another twice 
as long. My last line is 3 inches long. 

" 3. I drew a line 2 J ^ches long. I cut off I J inches. 
My line is now ij inches long. 

"4. I drew a line 5 inches long. I divided it into half 
inches. There are ten half-inches in the line. 

" Such exercises develop not only observation and 
thought, but what is of equal importance, expression. 

" Only simple problems are given. In so far as possible 
they are drawn from the experience of the children. Be- 
ginning with the second year simple prob- 
lems are given as a part of many reading 
lessons. No part of the arithmetic work has a greater 
value than this. In reading problems, the children are 



GENERAL AIMS I43 

trained to note what is given, what is asked for. They are 
led to feel that reading the problem is the first great step 
in its solution. 

" While the pupils are trained to explain in simple lan- 
guage the problems given, all the whys and wherefores are 
not demanded in either the problem work or in such me- 
chanical processes as ' borrowing ' and ' carrying.' Nor is 
it considered criminal if pupils fail to be able to apply all 
the numbers taken up. While applied work and measure- 
ments are important and are not neglected, the principal 
aim of the year's work is facility in handling the combina- 
tions given. Even in the third year something must be 
left to the growing maturity of the child." 

From the many exercises in arithmetic by pupils of the 
third grade three are given below. 

I. 

I drew a square one inch on every side. 

I drew two squares. There are two square inches in it. 

I drew a rectangle 4 inches long and 2 inches wide. It 
is twelve inches around it. There are 8 square inches in 
the rectangle. 

One square is J of the rectangle. Five squares are f 
of the rectangle. 

II. 

I have a small square. In my square are four triangles. 
Each triangle is J of my square. 

III. 
Problems 
A farmer had 275 horses. He sold 78 of them. He had 
197 horses left. 



144 MKTirODS IN TICACmNG 

One pcMuil cost 5 ct'iils. I l)ou[;lil 5 pencils and had to 
pay 25 cents for them. 

There were 23 cows in one field and 57 cows in another 
field. In the two fields there were 80 cows. 

There were 400 cows in one field and the farmer put 127 
of them into another field. There were 273 cows left in the 
first field. 



CTTAPTKR TX 

SOME SUBJECT MATTI-.U AND MI'/IIIODS IN I'OURril, 
I'll'Tll, SIXTH, SI'-VI'-NTIl. AND l-Killlll CiRADI-S 

FOURTH YEAR GRADE 

The work of this year inohulcs daily oral ch'ill in acUh- 
tion, suhtraction, niuUipHcation, division, and ])arlition of 

nunihcrs thronp^h 144. Many coni])ina- 

Subject . . , ,00 

jyj^^^^^ lions arc j^ivcn, siirh as 25 ( iS; 80—21 ; 

9X400; llic in{hcatcd operations hcin^ 
])frfornu'd mentally. T.on^ division, easy factorinf^, prac- 
tice in readint^ and writinp^ nnnihers throup^h two periods, 
are also in the allotment for fonrth j^rades. Such Ixoman 
nnmerals as are fonnd in the readinj;^ lessons are taught. 

Certain fractions are taken ohjectively ; snch as, f^, ^^, I, 
)(, and many others. Where the resnlts are intej^crs, parts 
of nnmhers are foinid. V>y the nse of the rnler and of 
hlackhoard illnstrati(jns, pnpils are led in a simple, con- 
crete way to add, snhtract, nuiltiply, and divide fractions, 
continuinp^ the work he^nn in these lines in the third j^rade. 
To aid in the thorough comprehension of fractions, diffcM-- 
ent concrete, fractional forms and resnlts are freqnently 
comi)are(l with one another. 

Uy the nse of the common miits of measmcment, the 
pii])ils are kept familiar with inch, foot, yard, mile; square 
inch, square foot; cnhic inch, cubic foot; pint, quart, p^al- 
lon ; ounce, ])Oun(l ; unit, dozen, gross ; second, minute, 
hour, week, month, year. 

II 14^ 



146 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Throughout the year problems are considered very im- 
portant. At least one a day is required in written work, 
and every day several are given orally. They are taken 
from a variety of sources, — geography, nature study, the 
stories, daily events; there are simple exercises in buying 
and selling, and in making change. No problem is given 
requiring more than two mental operations, and a clear 
statement of his problem is required of every child, whether 
he is solving it orally or in writing. 

By constant association of concrete forms with their 
actual measurements, empirically determined by the chil- 
dren; by training to see relations, both integral and frac- 
tional, the solution of these problems is raised out of guess- 
ing into careful calculation and accurate knowledge. These 
are two of the important aims of the work in the fourth 
grade. 

Busy work and class exercises, closely correlated with 
drawing and geography, are also prominent features of the 
work of the year. This constructive work centers around 
the use of the ruler, of surface and solid forms, of prob- 
lems involving the use of diagrams, and of drawing to 
scale. 

A fourth grade teacher^ says of this work: 

On coming into the fourth grade the children can use 

the inch, half-inch, and quarter-inch, and they soon learn 

the eighth-inch also. By using the ruler 

Fractional ^^^ children readily learn to add such ex- 

Measure- 

jjjgjj^g amples as the following: Draw a line ij 

inches long ; add to it a line 2 J inches long ; 

how long is the line thus made? Draw a figure 2J inches 

* Miss Maud Southworth. 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 14/ 

by 3f inches. Tell what you did. Find the perimeter. 
How long is it? 

Later, such examples as the following are mastered : I 
have three pieces of string; one is 2j inches long, another 
is 3i inches long, and the third is 2-J inches long. If laid 
end to end, how long a piece of string would I have? 

Towards the end of the school year the pupils will add 
such numbers without actually drawing the lines, and many 
can add them mentally. 

Comparisons of lines are also made. Lines are drawn 
on the board with colored chalk or put on a square of card- 
board. Different objects in the schoolroom are considered, 
width, height, length, being compared one with the other. 
The objects for drawing are reasoned out in the same way, 
and proportion becomes easier. Thus the children become 
accustomed to measuring and to estimating the perimeters 
and surfaces of objects varying greatly in shape and size. 

Until Christmas, the end of the first term, the children 
are busy with measurements, fractions considered con- 
cretely, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and short 
division. One problem is given every day and the children 
are taught to read it and to reason it out. After the Christ- 
mas vacation comes the real work of the year, long division. 

In the third grade, in learning the tables, the children 
found I of 12; in the fourth grade they find f, |. Later, 
they find mentally such parts as f of 480. 

For mental drill such combinations are given as: 

14 18 20 30 14 

+ 10 +10 -f- 10 +10 + II or 14 -f 10 + I 



148 METHODS IN TEACHING 

20 40 60 30 

— 10 — 20 — 40 — 19 or 30 — 10 — 9 

76 

— 48 or 76 — 40 — 8 

For help in long division such tables as the following are 
given : 

13X3; 14X3; 15X3; 16X3; 

17X3; 18X3; 19X3; 19X9; 

39-V-3; 42-f-3; 45-^3; 48-^3; 

5i-f-3; 54-^3; 57-^3; 171-^9. 

Compound numbers are begun in the earlier grades by 
actual measurements. In the fourth grade also the pint, 
quart, and gallon measures are in the room. Pupils are 
using the inch, foot, and yard with their rulers; and they 
find the square foot and square yard by measurements. If 
all this has been done before it is so much easier in the 
fourth grades; it is never unnecessary training, for to be 
accurate In estimates the pupils must be kept in frequent 
touch with the actual measurements. 

By the last of the year the pupils can find the area of 
such surfaces as this: 

A piece of paper is 9 inches long and 6 inches wide ; what 
is its area? Pupils draw the surface, divide it into square 
inches, and write the answer in a sentence, telling how the 
work has been done. The pupils are then shown that the 
same result is obtained by multiplying 9X6. In time they 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 149 

use much larger numbers, without drawing. The process 
of solving the problem mentally is often followed by draw- 
ing the area to scale. 

Thirty minutes a day are given to arithmetic in the 
fourth grade. Most of this time is taken for oral exer- 
cises, unless some entirely new subject is to be presented. 
Thirty minutes a day are also used for seat work by every 
pupil. This generally consists of ten examples. Much of 
the grade work is based on problems drawn from the expe- 
riences of the pupils. 

FIFTH YEAR GRADE 

With the close of the fourth grades there begins among 
the pupils that constant dropping out of school that does not 
cease thereafter. Consequently, persistent effort is made 
to give every child as thorough a preparation as his mental 
development will permit for the world into which he is 
entering. Arithmetic is one of the necessities in all lives, 
but the processes are not many that are required for a boy 
or girl who leaves school when but eleven years old. Such 
a child does need, however, thorough knowledge of those 
few processes, rapidity and accuracy in their use, and a 
quick recognition of the proper operation. 

The fifth grade outline of arithmetic aims to give care- 
ful and extensive reviews of the uses of integers in numbers 
through three periods and of the handling of simple frac- 
tions. In using integers there is drill in rapid addition of 
ledger columns; mental work with such combinations as, 
33 + 42, 84 — 47, 6400 -^- 8 ; long multiplication and divis- 
ion are completed ; pupils become very familiar with factor- 
ing; numbers of three periods are written and read; the 



150 METHODS IN TEACHING 

greatest common factor and the least common multiple are 
introduced, but drills on these subjects are in connection 
with addition and subtraction of fractions; Roman numer- 
als are treated incidentally, as they appear in reading. 

Fundamental operations with small fractional numbers 
are a constant part of the fifth year course. They are stud- 

„ ^. ied concretely by means of lines, diasframs. 

Fractions ^ •' -^ > & > 

solids, as in the lower grades, so that the 
pupils are led to think of fractions as having representative 
bodies in the world of realities. Puzzling and complex 
forms are omitted, for there is no desire to confuse the 
child; on the contrary, the aim of the year in regard to 
fractions is that every pupil become able to form clear men- 
tal images of fractions, so that all operations with them 
may be simplified. Such fractions as are commonly met in 
business transactions are used for the drills and problems 
given in the class. The most frequent are, — ^halves, thirds, 
fourths, fifths, sixths, eighths, twelfths. The pupils are 
expected to learn to find the least common denominator by 
inspection. Aliquot parts are studied, and fractions are 
compared. 

Measurements are continued. The various linear, sur- 
face, cubical, liquid, and weight units are in the room, and 

in a concrete way the pupils become famil- 
Compound . . , , „ t^ .,1 • • • 1 

Numbers ^^^ ^^^^ them all. Drill is given m chang- 

ing any unit of these measurements into the 
next larger and the next smaller unit. Estimates are made 
of lengths, weights, surfaces, cubical contents, and the esti- 
mates are verified. The area of rectangular surfaces is 
found by multiplying the number of units in a row by the 
number of rows. 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS I5I 

Problems of some practical nature, but simple enough to 
be within the grasp of the pupils, are in daily use. Mental 
work is given as much time as written work; it always 
comes first, so as to prepare the mind for more rapid think- 
ing in the written exercises. Considerable constructive 
work is given in connection with drawing and geography. 
About fifty minutes a day are given to arithmetic, mental 
and written, in this grade. 

The following is summarized from an account of the 
year's work and the method of developing its various fea- 
tures, as given by one of the regular teachers •} 

For convenience in handling fractions the subject is di- 
vided into three topics, — preliminary work, addition and 
subtraction, multiplication and division. Under prelimin- 
ary work the following points are taught, — denominator, 
numerator, formation of a fraction, raising to higher terms, 
reducing to lower terms, changing whole or mixed numbers 
to improper fractions, changing fractional forms to whole 
or mixed numbers, finding the least common denominator 
of two or more fractions. 

To develop the idea of the denominator an exercise sim- 
ilar to the following is taken: Divide the pages in your 

readers into two equal parts. What is each 
Denominator 

part called? What are the two halves 

equal to? Show ^, |, i, f of the readers. Find J, J of 

your rulers. These exercises are continued with lines, 

squares, yard-sticks, and circles. 

Development exercises for the numerator follow. The 

teacher tells the class to draw a line showing the denomina- 

* Miss Harriet M. Keating. 



152 METHODS IN TEACHING 

tor ^. A brace is placed above one of the parts, and the 
class is asked to express in words and by the proper frac- 
tional writing how many parts have thus 
Numerator ., , , 

been taken. The pupils then show f of a 

line, f , f . The same is shown with squares, circles, objects, 
until the meaning of the numerator is clear. The forma- 
tion of the fraction is then dwelt upon, until the meaning 
of both numerator and denominator is thoroughly under- 
stood. 

A line is divided into two parts and one-half is taken. 
Directly beneath the first line a second one is shown, hav- 
ing the denominator ^. 
Higher and 

Lower Terms ^ 



2 

If 

Then come questions and observations. How many parts 
have we? One-half of the line is the same as how many 
fourths? Write J, |. Each term of the first fraction has 
been multiplied by what? Has the value of the fraction 
been changed? Illustrate many times. Use squares, cir- 
cles, lines, objects. Make the rule for what has been done. 
Reduce to lower terms by reversing the operation and the 
illustrations. Drill thoroughly. 

Factoring is developed through questioning, and num- 
bers to 145 are factored. Rules for factoring by inspec- 
tion are copied into the notebooks and used 
Factoring ^ , , , 

for reference. Two numbers are then used 

for factoring by inspection and for comparison, as 52 and 
78, and cancellation is developed and explained. It is soon 
understood, and its use minimizes the labor. 

Integers are changed to fractional forms. How many 
halves in 4? How many times | are there in 2? How 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS I53 

many times | are there in 3 ? Thus there is developed the 
rule for changing an integer to a fractional form. 

Fractions are next reduced to a common denominator, as 

J and I. This is a repetition of the process of finding 

higher terms for a fraction, and is devel- 

Denominator ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^"^^ ^"^ circles in a similar man- 
ner. This includes fractions whose de- 
nominators are prime to each other, as J and J. The drills 
in factoring immediately suggest 6. By means of circles 
divided into sixths the common denominator is illustrated. 
Fractions having different denominators are compared 
as a preparation for the operations for which the pupils are 
about ready. A pupil is given ten circles, 
of Fractions ^"^ ^"^^ halves. From these J, |, | are 

taken and fitted into wholes, f are taken 
up and J are removed from them. After many exercises 
of this sort, fourths are made from a portion of the halves, 
and twelfths from some of the fourths. Fourths and 
twelfths are added, subtracted; combinations are also made 
with the halves. Five circles are cut into thirds ; some of 
these are cut into sixths ; some of these into twelfths. 
Thirds are added and subtracted; sixths; twelfths; combi- 
nations are made, and the pupils work out the results. 
Mental and oral drills are given. Addition and subtraction 
of fractions now follow with comparatively little hesitation 
or confusion. 

Multiplication of a fraction by an integer is first pictured 
with lines. One line is divided into eighths, and one part 

is taken. A second line, of equal length, 
Multiplication jg ^^^^^ j^5^ ^^^^^ ^^^ f^^.^^ . j^ j^ ^j^^ 

divided into eighths, three of which are 
taken. The pupils readily see that the second line that is 



154 METHODS IN TEACHING 

ond line that is marked off with a brace is three times the 
length of the first one. They write the two fractions, J, f , 
realizing that to obtain the latter they have multiplied the 
first by 3, and that only the numerator has changed. Many 
drills follow, that, in spite of their simplicity, fix the fact 
that to multiply the numerator of a fraction by an integer 
multiplies the value of the fraction. 

To multiply a fraction by an integer by dividing the 
denominator is also illustrated by lines and circles. Many 
illustrations, continued at intervals for several days, fix the 
fact that the smaller the denominator the fewer and larger 
are the parts into which an object is divided ; hence, divid- 
ing the denominator by any number multiplies the size of 
the part by that number. 

Division of fractions reverses the illustrations for multi- 
plication of fractions ; consequently, because of the resultant 
confusion in the minds of pupils, special care must be ob- 
served in making the illustrations, which 

.„ ^. should be frequent and numerous. The steps 

of Fractions ^ ^ 

taken are: i. To divide a fraction by an 
integer by dividing the numerator. 2. To divide a fraction 
by an integer by multiplying the denominator. 3. To divide 
a mixed number by an integer. 4. To divide an integer by 
a fraction whose numerator is i. 5. To divide an integer 
by a fraction when the integer is exactly divisible. 6. To 
divide an integer by a fraction when the integer is not 
exactly divisible. 7. To divide a fraction by a fraction 
when the numerator of the dividend is exactly divisible. 
8. To divide a fraction by a fraction when the numera- 
tor is not exactly divisible. 9. To divide a mixed number 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 155 

by a fraction. lo. To divide a mixed number by a mixed 
number. 

It is desired that the pupil shall be able to do more than 
" work " fractions ; he must be able to see them, to visualize 
the operations so that he understands them perfectly. In 
this ability will lie his real mastery of their use in later life. 

Compound numbers and tables are also a part of this 

year's work, and the aliquot parts of a dollar are studied. 

f, f, y-J of lOO cents are found mentally; 
Mon6y 

yf , f , f are worked out by diagrams. For 

ll an oblong is ruled, 6 by 4 inches in size, divided into 

spaces one-half inch square. By inspection of the ruler 

the children estimate i of an inch and add a strip that wide 

to the width of the oblong. This gives a surface 12 x 8J 

inches, or the equivalent of 100 squares. One row equals 

■^ of 100, or 8J squares ; two rows equal -f^ of 100, or i6| 

squares. 

For f an oblong is ruled, 4 inches wide by 6J long, di- 
vided into half-inch squares. This gives a surface of 8x 
12J squares, or 100 squares. One row is J of 100, or 12J 
squares. Two rows are f of 100, or 25 squares. 

For f an oblong is ruled, i^ inches wide and 4 inches 
long, and divided into quarter-inch squares. By inspec- 
tion of the ruler the children estimate f of a quarter-inch 
space, and add that amount to the length of the line. This 
gives a surface of 6xi6| squares, or 100 squares. One 
row is J of 100, or i6| squares. Two rows are f of 100, 
or 33 J squares. Some of the most important parts of 100 
are learned by the pupils, as: 8^ = 3^^ of 100; i2j = J of 
100; i6f = i of 100. Other aliquot parts are also mem- 
prized, as : t, I, i, i, f , etc. 



156 METHODS IN TEACHING 

The other weights and measures, mentioned above, are 
reviewed, in order to test, rectify, and strengthen the chil- 
dren's knowledge and ability to estimate. Then the tables 
and the various abbreviations in use are learned. 

SIXTH YEAR GRADE 

The general outline of the subjects to be studied in the 
sixth grade is similar to that for fifth grades, only the work 

becomes more intensive, and the subjects 
Course 

are treated more broadly. Decimal frac- 
tions added to common fractions means that percentage, 
bills, and many business transactions in money matters can 
be studied more fully than in the earlier grades. Complex 
fractions are also taken up this year. Exercises and drills 
are numerous to fix the tables of weight and measure 
learned and used in the preceding grades. 

Mental and oral exercises are given one-third of the time 
allotted to arithmetic during this year; concrete measure- 
ments are continued at intervals ; construc- 
Distribution . , . „, .,.,,, 

of Time ^^^^ work is still associated with the draw- 

ing, and, in addition, pupils are required to 
draw to scale the surfaces mentioned in assigned problems 
or to make illustrative diagrams, showing that the opera- 
tion to be performed is understood thoroughly. This illus- 
trative work is continued in the seventh and eighth grades. 
The special new feature of the year is the study of deci- 
mal fractions, particularly in their application to percentage 

and to other business forms. At first, the 
Percentage ., , , , , , , . 

pupils are led to see that the underlying 

principles of fractions, both common and decimal, are iden- 
tical with those of percentage. They are also led to see 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 15/ 

and to think the percentage relations by the use of lines, cir- 
cles, squares, just as was done with common fractions, until 
fifty per cent, of a body has as concrete an existence in their 
minds as one-half of that same body would have. Drills 
are used on giving parts of numbers as decimals, common 
fractions, aliquot parts, and percentage. The aim is that 
pupils know at sight the decimal and percentage values of 
the following fractions : |, f ; |, |, -| ; h h h i'^ h h h 

4.145.1358.13579.1 1.1.1 

Z } ¥» 6"» 6" ^ T» Tf Jf T > ¥> "8> ^> ¥» 8" ' T^f T^ > ^TT ^ T5' 

The following definite suggestions come from a sixth 
grade room:^ 

Common fractions having been introduced in the fifth 
grades and the principles learned there, the work in the 
sixth grades is a review of the subject, 
Fra tion combined with more thorough and difficult 

work by the introduction of more difficult 
problems, correct analysis, decimal fractions, and complex 
fractions. In presenting the subject of decimals, the pupils 
are led to see that they are studying another kind of frac- 
tion. The parts of the unit are first given in the form of 
a common fraction, then as a decimal fraction. The nu- 
merator and denominator of a decimal are considered, and 
the use of the point as well as the importance of always 
noticing it. While learning to read decimals, the pupils 
also spell the denominators and the corresponding term in 
whole numbers, so as to fix the distinction in spelling, pro- 
nunciation, and meaning. Careful attention is given to 
writing and reading decimals before any examples are 
given, for the majority of the mistakes in working with 
decimals come from the fact that the pupils do not under- 

*Mr. Edward P. Llesy. 



158 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Stand these first steps, consequently the real value of any 
decimal is obscured. 

The pupils are taught that decimal fractions, like com- 
mon fractions, can not be added or subtracted until they 

are reduced to a common denominator. 
Adding Illustrations by comparing decimals placed 

Subtracting correctly and incorrectly with common 

fractions show how this common denomi- 
nator is to be found. As: 

T2c; 125 

Tt • 15 

•I5 — 1-9^ 



The fact that placing decimal points under each other re- 
moves the difficulty is usually hailed with delight for ease 
of operation, and the illustration usually tends to greater 

.12^ 
care in writing decimals. As: * '^. The pupils are led 

to see that with this position tenths are being added to 
tenths, hundredths to hundredths. Many examples are 
given through all of this preliminary work with decimals, 
because of the importance of getting started right. Spe- 
cial drills are necessary where whole numbers and decimals 
are to be added or subtracted, as: 2^ -{- .12^ = ? 2 -{- 
.001 = ? 

Multiplication and division of decimals are introduced 
through common fractions, in order to fix the need and the 
reason for the pointing off of the product. 
Multiplication Examples are given as follows : j\ X j\ = 
Division T^'5"* Written out as a decimal the pupil 

observes that to say .2 X -2 == .04, he must 
put in the cipher to make his decimal read correctly. Drill 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS I 59 

is frequent, comparing constantly with equivalent common 
fractions, until the processes and the reasons for them are 
thoroughly learned. 

After studying fractions and decimals percentage is com- 
paratively easy. Much oral work is given before any writ- 
ten work is attempted. No terms, such as 
Percentage 

base, rate, are required in the beginning. 

The first problems are similar to the following: What is 
25 per cent, of $i6o? What is 17 per cent, of 140 gallons? 
Common fractions are substituted for the per cent, and the 
indicated multiplication is also performed. 

The next problems deal with finding out what per cent, 
one number is of another; as: $9 is what per cent, of $12? 
This is so closely related to fractions that the same solution 
is required, only the answer is finally given in per cent. 
From a knowledge of aliquot parts many of the fractional 
answers are given as per cent, at sight ; others can be given 
by a little mental work; still others must be thought out 
more laboriously. This last, however, is an exercise that 
belongs to more advanced grades. Problems in profit and 
loss and many miscellaneous examples, including all of the 
principles that have been developed in percentage, complete 
the work of the year in percentage. 

To secure accuracy in business forms and letter writing 
requires much careful work. There are so many little 
points to be observed that pupils are liable 
p, to overlook some of them; consequently, 

repetition and rewriting are necessary. 
The proper forms are placed before the class and explained. 
After copying and studying them, many bills and letters are 
dictated. The result desired is that every pupil shall be 



l6o METHODS IN TEACHING 

able to write a letter ordering a bill of goods, to make out 
a bill to be sent with the goods ordered, to write a letter 
sending the money to pay for the goods, and to write the 
receipt for the money paid. Every paper must be accom- 
panied by the proper addresses of the person to whom the 
letter is sent and of the sender. The pupils also write many 
original bills and letters. While making out these bills and 
orders, the pupils are asked to learn from the daily paper 
the actual prices of produce, and to use them in their trans- 
actions. From these newspaper price-lists a great deal of 
information is obtained concerning articles bought and 
sold. In connection with letter writing, there is taught 
how to subscribe for a newspaper or magazine. 

No written work in measurements is taken during this 

year, but many applications of the tables already learned 

are made, work with the ruler is frequent, 

and the tables are reviewed whenever it 
ments 

seems necessary. Some new measurements 
are drawn on the board; the square rod is drawn on the 
floor of the school room; the square mile is indicated as 
lying between certain boundaries, and the pupils are en- 
couraged to walk or ride over its area so as to become 
familiar with its extent. Square and cubic measure are 
emphasized, as being the least understood of all the tables, 
but the work is in the nature of simple problems to make 
the principles clear, rather than difficult problems for the 
sake of the work itself. Drawings are made to represent 
some of the solids measured by cubic measure, and the con- 
tents are found. 

Simple interest is taken as a part of the money topic. 
The subject is given in a very elementary manner. The 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS l6l 

pupils are told how men borrow money, pay for its use, and 
return it; how securities are given as a safeguard for the 
Simple money borrowed. No difficult problems are 

Interest given, and no special rule or method is in- 

sisted upon for finding the interest. Many problems are 
given, the simpler ones being worked orally, while the more 
difficult ones are worked out on the board or paper. 
SEVENTH YEAR GRADE 

Accuracy, rapidity, neatness, these are the three require- 
ments kept constantly before the seventh grades. Pupils 

who have remained in school until this year 
Course 

will, if passed in their studies, ordinarily 

continue until the end of the grammar grades. Conse- 
quently, the work of the seventh and eighth grades can be 
planned together as a whole more safely than any other two 
consecutive grades. There are many and frequent exer- 
cises in rapid addition of ledger columns and of simpler 
sums. Mental work is continued in combinations of two 
or more figures, a feature of the exercises in all of the 
grammar grades. The Arabic and Roman notations are 
completed. The textbook presentation of common and 
decimal fractions is finished during this year, although 
drills on these subjects are important so long as the pupil 
is in school. The pupils are made familiar with several 
more tables, taken concretely at first, if possible. These 
are troy weight, dry measure, paper and books, English 
money, and counting table. Subtraction of dates; lumber 
measure ; city blocks ; cost of building walks, fences, grad- 
ing streets, excavating, and similar work, all belong to the 
seventh grade. The pupils measure walks and fences that 

12 



l62 METHODS IN TEACHING 

are being built, cellars that are being excavated, rooms that 
are being plastered, and report on the measurements taken 
and the data secured. This work may be done by one pupil, 
by the whole class, or by a committee appointed for the 
purpose. In connection with geography, a simple course 
in longitude and time is given. 

Percentage is applied more extensively to business opera- 
tions by familiarity with the following topics: percentage, 
profit and loss, commission, simple interest, accounts, in- 
surance, and simple work in partial payments. In connec- 
tion with these subjects the pupils are trained to write all 
the business forms required by them. Simple algebraic 
equations are used in many solutions. 

The principal of one of the grammar schools and the 
teacher of a seventh grade gives the following suggestions 
from his work :^ 

Much oral work is given to oblige correct thinking ; there 
are frequent short oral drills for quickness and accuracy; 
computations are tested both by rough estimates and by 
exact means; unusual technical terms and formal rules are 
avoided except when necessary for good work, careful ex- 
pression, or complete understanding. 

Since the cry of the business man that pupils can not even 

add or multiply correctly is only too well founded, much 

practice is given for acquiring facility in 
Reviews 

calculations. Hence, addition, subtraction, 

multiplication, and division are reviewed, reviewed, and re- 
viewed. All kinds of problems, especially those that are 
based on actual business transactions, are used to prevent 
monotony in these reviews. Common and decimal frac- 
' Mr. O. H. Grubbs. 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 1 63 

tions are reviewed and completed, special attention being 
given to pure decimals. As in the drills on integers, in- 
numerable problems are given in fractions to develop speed 
and accuracy. Much stress is placed on cancellation, actual 
multiplication and division being performed by the shorter 
process whenever possible. 

Believing that any one, "good at figures," can readily 
adapt himself to his environments when placed on his own 

resources in business, only a few tables in 

Denominate , . ^ , • j t, ^ u 

J, , denommate numbers are required; but, by 

a concrete use of linear, surface, and cubic 
measures, weights, money, and counting, pupils are led to 
make more and more definite their ideas of number rela- 
tions. Constructive diagrams, drawn to scale, illustrative 
of the assigned problems, are required very frequently. In 
objective work, measurements of lumber at the lumber 
yards, of excavations being made, of special points in 
houses under construction, of fences, sidewalks, streets, are 
usually obtained through efforts of the class as a whole. 
An individual or a committee takes the measurements when- 
ever it is not convenient for the whole class to do so. This 
work is very interesting and instructive for both teacher 
and pupils. 

As we are working for mathematical power, its develop- 
ment is not retarded by forcing unnecessary assistance upon 

the pupils. In percentage, for instance. 
Percentage , , . . .... 

where the problems are similar in every 

respect to those given the fifth grades in fractions and the 

sixth grades in decimals, the pupils are expected to reason 

out their own work. Knowing this, the children respond 

to the requirement, usually with readiness and success. 



164 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Little stress is laid upon the various terms, insurance, com- 
mission, profit and loss ; the pupil who has been well taught 
in fractions and decimals handles any of these topics with- 
out further help. Simple problems are given, and empha- 
sis is laid upon the fact that per cent, means hundredths, 
or a fraction with 100 for a denominator. The pupil is 
trained to ask himself of what the per cent, is to be taken. 
This is, of course, largely a matter of language. Making 
use of aliquot parts connects percentage with fractions eas- 
ily, and helps prevent falling into rote methods. 

In mental arithmetic the aim is to cover the same work 
done in written arithmetic, fixing the principles by short, 
simple, practical examples. Part of every 
. . , . period for recitation is devoted to oral 

analyses. Every day from five to ten ex- 
amples are given by the teacher, the pupils writing only 
the answers. 

As there is nothing beyond the intelligence of the average 
child in the application of simple algebraic formulas to the 
solution of problems, the use of the equa- 
_, . tion is often required. It is always em- 

ployed in a simple manner, and the pupils 
soon learn to enjoy its use and to appreciate the greater 
ease of solution thus made possible. 

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE 

The chief work of this grade is a thorough review of all 

the subjects and processes of the preceding grades, laying 

special stress on the fundamental operations 

Course . , . r • 1 r 

with mtegers, common fractions, such of 

the tables as are in frequent use, and percentage. Abund- 
ant drill is given in problems, both oral and written, for the 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 165 

accuracy, rapidity, and precision of work that is considered 
essential for every pupil before finishing the grammar 
grades. 

The advanced work deals with ratio, proportion, partner- 
ship, taxes, compound interest, trade discount, powers and 
roots with application to mensuration. Mental work is 
still a prominent feature, one-third of the time, approxi- 
mately, being given to exercises that are to be solved men- 
tally. Some work in book-keeping is introduced, familiar- 
izing the pupils with the meaning and use of the terms 
debtor, creditor, cash account, day book, and ledger. Keep- 
ing small personal accounts is usually an interesting method 
of study with the pupils. In connection with these exer- 
cises, there is opportunity for considerable training in writ- 
ing business letters and making out necessary forms. The 
simple algebraic equation is used as in the seventh grades 
in the solution of many problems. 

The principal of one of the grammar schools and teacher 
of an eighth grade^ gives some of the methods used in his 
class : 

The idea of training for habit is kept constantly in mind, 

while the thought of the year concerning knowledge is to 

give the pupils a familiarity with number 
Aims 

processes that will assist them definitely in 

bread-winning pursuits. Many pupils and people have 
ability, but they are lacking in the power of concentration ; 
they have brains, but are handicapped by an inability for 
continued effort. Consequently, if pupils can work in- 
tensely on some problem for one recitation period, endeav- 
oring, while working out the solution, to express their ideas 

* Mr. William H. Murray. 



1 66 METHODS IN TEACHING 

logically, systematically, and neatly, valuable power is being 
gained. Certainly, concentration is being developed. Ex- 
tremes in this mental discipline are avoided, for ability to 
reason out a puzzle does not always imply that the power 
gained can be applied in other directions. 

The problems and general treatment of insurance as given 
in our textbook having been pronounced obsolete and im- 
practical by a half dozen of our local in- 
Insurance 

surance agents, the teacher has made a 

study of modern methods and presents the subject as busi- 
ness is actually transacted in the offices. One of our local 
agents kindly favored us with a talk on insurance methods, 
which proved very instructive. From him we obtained a 
rate book and insurance maps of the city. The superin- 
tendent of streets loaned us his rubber stamp of a city 
block. Every pupil was given a diagram of a block, upon 
which, after locating the lot where he lived, he made a dia- 
gram of his own home and of other buildings if there were 
any. From the rate book was obtained the rating of the 
property, after which finding the premium was an easy 
matter. 

In considering insurance such questions as these are 
asked: Why is A's house (which is isolated) rated so much 
lower than B's (which is crowded among other houses) ? 
Why arc brick buildings rated lower than frame buildings ? 
The pupils are asked what rates they would think livery 
stables, planing mills, paint factories, would have to pay. 
In most cases the answers are readily given. Pupils who 
live in the country discover that their rates are higher than 
those of many living in the city, and they are eager to 
know why. The fact that Chinatown has a high rate af- 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 1 6/ 

fords food for thought. One member of the class dis- 
covered that his rate had been ahiiost doubled during the 
last year. A committee of the pupils sent to investigate 
concluded that it was because a large hay barn had been 
constructed on the adjoining lot. 

Comparisons between the school house and other build- 
ings are made. The pupils are encouraged to bring in all 
the questions that they can, and by the time that we are 
ready to take up a new topic the ground has been very well 
covered. The teacher is often surprised to see how inter- 
esting a dry rate book becomes when put into actual use. 
Many oral and a few written problems are given, and every 
pupil writes a paper summarizing the knowledge that is 
gained. 

In computing interest the hundred month method is used. 

The basic idea is that the interest on any principal for one 

hundred months at 12 per cent, is equal 
Interest , . . , , , , . r 

to the prmcipal, and that the mterest for a 

number of months, an aliquot part of one hundred, is just 
that part of the principal. The interest for one month is 
y|^ of the principal, and the interest for a certain number 
of days is equal to so many thirtieths reduced to the lowest 
terms of j-J^ of the principal. If we desire the interest 
for eight months, we point off two places in the principal 
and multiply by 8. Having found the interest at 12 per 
cent., the interest at any per cent, may be found by first see- 
ing what part the given per cent, is of twelve, and then by 
taking that fractional part of the interest at 12 per cent. 
The advantages of this method are speed and the avoidance 
of bothersome fractions, for the work is largely of a deci- 
mal nature. 



1 68 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Square and cube root are developed by the blocks. When 
the pupils understand the principle, they are allowed to work 
by rule. After the demonstration is made 
Cube Root ^^ ^^^ teacher, a pupil, generally one of the 

brightest, is called upon to present the same 
to the class, using the blocks while so doing. In a very 
short time every pupil in the class is able to present the sub- 
ject intelligently. Finally, the pupils are required to make 
the drawings representing the different steps, and to de- 
scribe the process in writing. Problems involving the ap- 
plication of square and cube root follow. 

In measuring surfaces and contents, a special effort is 

made to lead the pupils to see that shapes and forms have 

a certain relation to one another; and that, 
Mensuration 

when a few truths are well understood, it 

is possible to discover others. Few rules are required, the 
pupils developing their own whenever possible. The rec- 
tangle and triangle are first mastered. When a new figure 
involving area is presented, the thought is, first, find the 
rectangle; then, find the triangle. The pupils are led to 
see that the faces of most solids are related to one or the 
other of these figures: that the side of a hexagonal prism 
is a rectangle, and that the base is a hexagon, which can 
be divided into triangles; that the base of a cylinder is a 
circle, made up of triangles ; that the sides form a rectangle ; 
and that the cone and the pyramid can be resolved into 
triangles. 

In our work with solids, we follow the idea so well ex- 
pressed by Griffin : " Lead the children to see that, when 
finding the volume of a solid, they are finding the number 
of cubic units it contains, which are found in layers, of a 



SUBJECT MATTER AND METHODS 1 69 

given number of rows, of a given number of units in a 
row." 

The relation of the volumes of the pyramid, prism, cone, 
and cylinder to one another is shown by experimenting 
with tin measures. The pupils see by experiments that the 
cylinder and prism hold respectively three times as much 
water as do the cone and the pyramid. Hence the rule for 
finding their volumes. The volume of the sphere, from a 
model divided into pyramids, is seen to be the aggregation 
of the volumes of a number of pyramids. The relation of 
the great circle to the surface of a sphere is shown by wrap- 
ping the flat and the convex surfaces of a hemisphere with 
a string. The pupils see that twice as much string is re- 
quired in the latter as in the former case; hence, the rule. 
It is found by experiment with a string that the circum- 
ference of a circle is about 3-f times the diameter. It is 
convenient to have the class learn the formulas : D X 
3.1416 = C; and D"" X .7854 = ^. 

Considerable attention is given to drawing to scale plans 
of rooms, yards, and gardens, then finding the areas. A 
great deal of time is required for this kind of work, as much 
as a week having been spent on our school yard alone. 



I'AkT III 
NATUKIi STUDY UKOGKAI'llY 



CHAPTER X 
PLANT STUDY' 

Nature study is an attempt to place the child, through 
interest, in intelligent touch with the natural objects and 
processes which surround him. It turns to practical use 
the restless spirit of investigation which is so characteristic 
of healthy childhood. This innate curiosity that marks the 
child mind is the natural, wide-open door through which 
multitudes of little experiences reach their places in the 
storehouse of knowledge. It is the province of nature 
study to direct and develop this form of interest; to guide 
the child to correct solutions for the many problems that 
arise in his actively growing mind, and thus help him in 
securing an education that is both liberal and practical. 

Thus far the tendency has been toward plant and animal 
study; but, while these subjects are admirably adapted to 
the work, every course is enriched and interest is better 
sustained by including lessons on air, water, evaporation 
and condensation, steam, air and water currents, light, heat, 
sound, electricity, minerals, including the useful metals, 
soils and soil formation, and other topics. Plant study has 
already taken the eminently practical form of school gar- 
dens. In these the elements of plant physiology, soils and 
other plant foods, preparation and cultivation of the soil, 

' The chapter on Nature Study is written by Mr. Edward Hughes, 
Supervisor of Nature Study in the Stockton city schools and Prin- 
cipal of the El Dorado Grammar School. 

173 



1/4 METHODS IN TRACiriNG 

and many ollu-r pliascs of agriculture arc taup^ht objectively. 
This movement, wherever directed with intelh^ence, will 
be an important step toward a condition in which trained 
men and rational methods will supersede our present " hit 
and miss" practices in farming. Other phases of nature 
study j)romise much for other industrial j)ursuits as well as 
for public health and sanitation. 

Nature study is a common sense subject and does not 
require special preparation of the teacher. ICxperience in 
teachinp^ is a great helj) ; tact and good judgment are essen- 
tial. All of us are in conscious contact with nature some- 
where. Let the first les.son or series of lessons be drawn 
from something that will commend itself to i)arents as prac- 
tical or useful. Make the lessons short and simple. Study 
results. That which ap])eals to a child's interest and under- 
standing will form the nucleus of a course. When a begin- 
ning has once been made every day will contribute some- 
thing for the enrichment and extension of the work. 

A common mistake by teachers and supervisors is the 
attemi)t to make science of the subject. The child sees one 
thing at a (iiiie well. Class interest flourishes in the study 
of the isolated object or phenomenon. It dies when we try 
to establish causes and effects which are not almost self- 
evident. Our knowledge comes to us as isolated facts and 
ex])eriences. The classification into a body of knowledge 
is the work of maturer years. 

Pupils should find out things for themselves; they should 
not read too much. Those who get into the habit of accept- 
ing the statements of others at the expense of the power 
of independent observation have gained nothing from the 
work. The use of nature study readers may arouse inter- 



PLANT STUDY 175 

est, but it is not nature study. The work should be recrea- 
tive in its nature. It should be a break in the monotony 
and drill of the more intensive application of the essential 
subjects. 

Nature study should have its own time on the school 
program ; it should be taught for its own value. At the 
same time it furnishes valuable material for oral language ; 
it may be used to some extent in written work, alth(^ugh 
pupils should not feel that they are to be held to writing 
up everything studied in nature work ; nature study and 
drawing are mutually heljjful ; the value of nature study 
to geography is self-evident. 

Every phase of the work discussed in the ensuing chap- 
ter has been tested and its usefulness demonstrated by 
teachers of exi)erience and good judgment in the schools 
of our city. lu)r a country so wide in extent and so varied 
in climate and other conditions as ours, it is imjKxssible to 
indicate in all cases at just what time of the year a particu- 
lar kind of material will be available for the dilTerent re- 
gions included. 

Plant Study 

A subject well suited to the time at which schools usually 
open in autumn is seeds and seed distribution. Tt should 

be introduced by a study of such seeds as 
Seeds and Seed ,^^ ^ ^ ^^^^j ,^ ^^ ^ ^^^^^^ 

Distribution ^ . . 

in which the embryo ])lant is easily seen. 

I^acli i)upil should have specimens of the different seeds to 
be examined. Avoiding technical names, draw from pupils 
such facts as they already know concerning the seed and its 
work in the continued life of the plant. Add to this knowl- 
edge anything within the pupil's comprehension which may 



176 METHODS IN TEACHING 

be necessary to impress upon his mind the great importance 
of the seed in the perpetuation of the plant species. The 
collection of seeds should follow. In this work the teacher 
may indicate a certain class of seeds to be collected by each 
grade. Thus, grade one, cereals; grade two, vegetables 
and flowers; grade three, fruits; grade four, forest trees; 
grade five, common weeds. 

Discuss with classes the advantage of such appendages 
as make seeds easily carried by the wind. Examples: 
dandelion, thistle, milkweed, salsify, maple, ash, and linden. 
In some cases the whole plant breaks off at the surface of 
the ground and is rolled by the wind for long distances, 
scattering seeds as it goes. Examples : tumble-weed of the 
western states and the specially troublesome Russian thistle. 
Other seeds have hooked or barbed spines for taking hold 
of the hair or fur of animals or the clothing of man. Ex- 
amples: cockle-bur, burdock, hound's tongue, beggar-lice, 
Spanish-needle, and the barbed beards of grain. Still 
others have spiral " clocks," very sensitive to moisture. 
These, by their motion, help the seed to bore into the soil, 
thus insuring its growth. Some plants, as the fruits and 
the nuts, depend upon birds and animals to scatter and plant 
the seeds. Thus the jays, woodpeckers, squirrels, become 
tree-planters and conservers of forests. Each plant must in 
some way solve the problem of effectually scattering and 
planting its seeds. These are interesting problems, and 
perhaps nothing in nature tends more to develop the habit 
of close observation than such work as here indicated, and 
much more that will suggest itself to the teacher. 

Another phase of the subject and one better suited to the 
needs of higher grades is seed production and rate of in- 



PLANT STUDY 1/7 

crease among plants. Most plants produce an enormous 
number of seeds. Have pupils count the number of grains 
Seed of wheat produced by a single " stool " ; the 

Increase number of seeds in a single poppy head, and 

from these estimate the number produced by an entire 
plant. Estimate the possible increase for crop after crop. 
Beginning with a single seed, how long would it take 
under perfect conditions for any one of the plants studied 
to occupy all the land in a single city block? in a square 
mile? in the state? in the United States? That plants 
do not increase at any such rate is apparent. Why not? 
What becomes of the seeds thus produced? In early 
spring have a careful, persevering pupil measure off a 
square foot or a square yard of ground and carefully pull 
up and count all the plants that come up in the space. In 
the same way measure a similar space and let all grow that 
will. How many of the plants in this space are able to 
reach maturity and produce seed? Compare this number 
with the number that started in the space where they were 
counted. Plants struggle with other plants for space in 
which to grow. They also struggle for life against ani- 
mals, poor soil, climatic conditions, and other obstacles to 
existence. Why do plants produce such a great number 
of seeds? 

Secure any thrifty plant, six to ten inches high, and place 

its roots in a bottle of water in the schoolroom. Place a 

bottle of the same size, also filled with 

Parts of water, beside it for comparison. Note 

a Plant , , 

after a day or two that more water has 

gone from the bottle containing the plant than from the 

other. The plant has used some of this water. Which part 

13 



178 METHODS IN TEACHING 

of the plant has taken in the water ? What would happen to 
a plant if its roots were placed in perfectly dry soil? Call 
the attention of pupils to the root hairs near the growing 
tips of the smallest roots. Tell them that these are the 
parts of the roots that take water from the soil. What else 
do roots take from the soil? In what form must plant food 
be before the roots can take it in? 

In a similar manner develop the use of the stem, leaves, 
buds, flowers, and fruit of the plant. With young pupils 
this should be done very simply, but with the aim of giving 
correct ideas of the uses of plant organs as far as they are 
able to understand them. With older pupils, the work 
should be carried farther. Such subjects as osmosis, sap 
circulation (shown by the use of colored water), transpira- 
tion by the leaves, the absorption of carbon dioxide from 
the air, and the giving off of oxygen by the green parts of 
the plants when exposed to sunlight, and many other phases 
of plant physiology, are easily shown by experiment, and 
they add wonderfully to interest and understanding. If a 
compound microscope is available, the pupils will be much 
interested in seeing the stomata of leaves, plant cells, and 
chlorophyl grains. The latter can be shown best in a little 
green scum from ponds. 

From the study of the simple plant as suggested above, 
i|- is only a step to the study of the tree through its annual 
cycle. Let the class adopt some individual 
^ ^j.gg tree as the " class tree." Review and iden- 

tify the parts of a plant as found in a tree. 
Have the class note in a series of properly timed lessons 
extending through the year, the following phases of the 
tree's vegetative activity, beginning soon after school opens 



PLANT STUDY 179 

in the autumn: ripening of fruit; dropping of leaves; 
period of rest, during which a study of twigs and buds will 
be found very interesting; opening flower buds; opening 
leaf buds; period of growth, during which the twigs are 
lengthened by growth of the terminal bud and a new layer of 
wood deposited just under the bark all over the tree, and at 
the same time an inner layer added to the bark ; formation 
and maturing of buds for next year; maturing of fruit 
(seeds). During the study, call attention to the means by 
which the tree heals wounds in its bark; how its seeds are 
dispersed and planted; and settle with the class such ques- 
tions as whether or not the heart wood grows, and whether 
the bole of the tree lengthens by growth near the ground. 
What other forms of life are found in the tree? Lichens? 
Moss? Mistletoe? Insects? Birds? Animals? Extend 
the work to other trees for comparison. Compare with 
palm or other endogen if available. The palm grows from 
a single bud of enormous size. This bud never assumes 
the dormant form, because the climate of the tropics is 
never cold enough to render this necessary. In the endo- 
gens (inside growers) no annual rings are formed. Note 
the differences between the seeds and the venation of leaves 
of exogens and endogens. 

In the germination of seeds shallow boxes, three to five 
inches in depth, are best for indoor work. For deepest 
interest the work should begin before the 
of Seeds advent of the growing season out of doors. 

Lima beans, peas, pumpkins, squash, In- 
dian corn, and some of the larger wild seeds from the seed 
collections will be found well adapted to the work. While 
waiting for the germination of the planted seeds, have the 



l80 METHODS IN TEACHING 

pupils examine some well-soaked lima beans. They should 
make out the skin-like outer covering and the small open- 
ing near the scar of attachment to the ovary. This opening 
admits water to the germinating seed. The bean should 
then be split and the parts of the embryo plant made out. 
The pupil will see the parts better if he is asked to draw 
them. Other seeds should be examined in a similar man- 
ner. The embryo of Indian corn can be well seen by split- 
ting the grain through a little to the right or left of its 
center. 

When the young plants appear, pupils should watch 
closely their manner of breaking the soil crust, noting 
which of the parts previously seen in the seed are shown 
in the unfolding of the young plant. Have them make out 
the seed leaves of the bean and pumpkin, and find what has 
become of the body of the seed in the case of the corn and 
peas. Serial drawings will help them in remembering the 
stages of growth. When pupils are too young to make 
these satisfactorily, blackboard drawings by the teacher will 
suffice. By questions lead the pupils to see that the con- 
ditions necessary for proper germination are moisture, heat, 
and air. If they do not see these as needful, they can be 
readily convinced by experiment. Try planting some seeds 
in soil that is constantly soaked with water to the exclusion 
of air. Try planting lima beans with the opening before 
mentioned just above the surface of the ground. Plant 
others at the same depth with the opening down, leaving 
the back of the seed exposed. Which of the seeds thus 
planted develop? The use of the seed leaves (cotyledons) 
should be made clear. The growth of the roots and root 
hairs can be better seen by the germination of a few radish 



PLANT STUDY l8l 

seeds or grains of barley on gauze or cheese cloth. The 

material should be tied loosely over the top of a drinking 

glass filled with water. Invert a saucer over the glass until 

the roots of the germinating seeds reach the water in the 

glass. This forms a moist chamber in which the seeds will 

start readily. The logical continuation of the work thus 

begun in the school is the home or school garden, in which 

the planting and tending are done by the pupils under the 

direction of the teacher. 

For the simpler work with flowers have the pupils bring 

to school the first wild flowers of the spring. The common 

names are written on the board with the 
Flow6r 
Studv name of the child who made the collection. 

By the end of the school year there will be 
established a speaking acquaintance with the common wild 
flowers. 

For pupils of the higher grades the work may be ex- 
tended to the study of the parts of a perfect flower and the 
uses of each part. Having familiarized themselves with 
these, the problems of fertilization (pollination) and cross 
fertilization and nature's methods for insuring these vital 
processes are opened to the pupils. If possible, show the 
growth of the pollen tube from the pollen grain as follows : 
Place pollen of the svsreet-pea in a ten per cent, sugar solu- 
tion. This is made by mixing a teaspoonful of thick sugar 
syrup with nine teaspoonfuls of water. Examine under 
the low power of the microscope two or three times at inter- 
vals of as many hours. Explain the significance of this 
growth to the pupils : the pollen grain adheres to the sticky 
surface of the stigma and sends its pollen tube down 
through the style to the ovule in the ovary. The proto- 



1 82 METHODS IN TEACHING 

plasm of the pollen grain and the ovule are thus united in 
the latter, resulting in its development into a seed. Let the 
pupils prove by experiment that pollination is necessary for 
seed production. 

For the purpose of study flowers may be divided into two 
classes: those that depend upon the wind for pollination; 
as, Indian corn, willow, walnut, pine, wheat, and other 
grasses. Those that depend upon insects ; this class includ- 
ing all flowers conspicuous through bright colors or pecu- 
liarity of form. The following are particularly interesting 
for study, alfalfa, Scotch broom, perennial pea, snap- 
dragon, evening primrose, milkweed, Smyrna fig, the mel- 
ons and squashes, and the perfect and imperfect flowered 
varieties of the strawberry. Indian corn and the straw- 
berries are especially adapted to the experiment above men- 
tioned. In studying the milkweed have the pupils brush 
the flowers gently over the hairs on the back of the hand. 
The pollen masses will be found tight-clutched to the hairs. 
Catch some of the insects that visit these same flowers ; 
their claws and long hairs will often be found loaded with 
the pollinia, which are thus dragged over the stigmatic sur- 
faces of the flower, insuring fertilization. 

Pupils will find it very interesting to watch insects at 
work among the flowers, seeking the nectar, or pollen. 
Careful observation will usually disclose the method by 
which the bee or other flower-loving insect thus becomes 
the unconscious but indispensable servant of the plant. 
There is a side to such work as this that has proved more 
than practical. It is practice, based upon wide knowledge 
of this character, that enables a Luther Burbank to produce 
fruits, flowers, and other plant products almost to order. 



PLANT STUDY 1 83 

Plants furnish to men and many other animals a very 
large part of their food supply. Perhaps the most impor- 
tant foods which man obtains directly from 
^^^^ plants are the starches, sugars, and oils. 

Formed bv ^^ ^^^ starch producing plants the follow- 

Plants ing are well known: potato, sago palm, 

arrow-root, the manioc from which tapioca 
is derived, rice, and the common cereals. Mix a few drops 
of dilute iodine with a little flour paste, and note that the 
mixture changes immediately to a bright blue. A thin sec- 
tion of potato treated with very dilute iodine and examined 
under the low power of the microscope will show the blue 
starch grains in the colorless potato cells. 

Sugar is derived mainly from three sources, — sugar cane, 
beets, and the evaporated sap of the maple tree. It is also 
found in many ripe fruits; as, grapes, figs, prunes, apples, 
pears; it is also present in small quantities in the sap of 
other trees than the maple, notably in the sugar pine of the 
Pacific slope. Pupils in the higher grades will be inter- 
ested in knowing that sugar, wood fibre, and starch are 
very much alike chemically. Each is a chemical union of 
carbon (charcoal is a familiar example) and water in 
slightly different proportions. The following experiment 
demonstrates this for sugar: 

Fill a test-tube about one-sixth full of thick sugar syrup. 
Add the same amount of sulphuric acid. Set the tube in 
a glass and put the glass on a piece of heavy cardboard. 
Note that the mixture slowly turns brown and then very 
black. The mixture rises in the tube and considerable heat 
is generated. The acid has decomposed the sugar by tak- 
ing out the water, leaving the almost pure carbon. If the 



184 METHODS IN TEACHING 

substance is now washed thoroughly in running water to 
free it from all traces of the acid, and then thoroughly 
dried, it is found to be quite like soot, and it may be burned 
as other forms of carbon are burned. Pupils already know, 
perhaps, that in digestion starch is converted into sugar. 
The same process takes place in the ripening of some fruits 
and in the germination of starchy seeds. See malt and beer 
making. 

Vegetable fats, also nearly pure carbon, are obtained from 
the seeds and fruits of many plants, notably the olive, cot- 
ton-seed, and practically all the nuts. Other vegetable fats, 
as turpentine and linseed oil, are important in the arts and 
manufactures. These substances are, of course, stored up 
for the plant's own use ; man and other animals appropriate 
them and apply them to needs of their own. 

All plants store food in their seeds or in those parts used 
as seeds, — as tubers, bulbs, spores. This stored food is 
manifestly for the use of the young plant 
^®°^ until it becomes able to support itself. 

Stored by Other plants store food in quantities for 

Plants the purpose of having a large amount of 

quickly available material out of which the 
flower-stalk, flowers, and seeds are formed rapidly in the 
proper season. Some of these mature in one year ; as, rad- 
ishes, lettuce, alfileria, mullein, and many others. Some 
require two years from seed to seed again ; examples, beet, 
carrot, onion, cabbage, celery. Still others require several 
years, as is the case with the so-called century plant. 

Food is thus stored in the roots, as in parsnips, radishes, 
beets, turnips ; in the leaves, as in cabbage, lettuce, and 
mullein; in the leaf bases, as in celery, onions, and lilies; 



PLANT STUDY 1 8$ 

in the flower-stalk, as in the cauHflower; in portions of the 
stem, as in the potato ; and in the seed cases, as in the fruits 
generally. The purpose to be gained with the fruits seems 
to be to cause the seeds to be scattered. This is largely 
accomplished by those animals which use the fruit for food. 
Among the plants useful to man may come first the food 
plants. These may be divided for convenience into cereals, 
vegetables, fruits. Let pupils prepare lists 
TT f 1 t ^^ those that are produced locally; those 

Man grown in other portions of the country; 

those that are imported from other coun- 
tries. Have samples of the most important ones for exam- 
ination. Which part of the plant is used for food? What 
is its appearance? Where is it produced? Etc. Etc. 
Treat similarly the textile plants, cotton, flax, ramie; the 
timber used in building and cabinet making; medicinal 
plants may also be considered. 

Besides the movements of growth noticed in the growing 
parts of any plant, there are a number of motions that are 
very interesting when shown experimen- 
Movements tally. Some of these movements would in- 

dicate that plants have something akin to 
the nervous system in animals. At least, certain parts of 
plants have sensibility and the motion that results from it. 
The common sensitive plant, easily grown in a pot or box 
in the schoolroom, furnishes perhaps the best illustration 
of plant motion. Working from this as a beginning, pupils 
will find many examples of flowers that either close their 
petals or droop their blossoms at night to protect their pol- 
Jen from the dew. Many flowers also show a more or less 



1 86 METHODS IN TEACHING 

marked inclination to follow the apparent diurnal motion 
of the sun. The leaves of many plants, notably oxalis, 
varieties of acacia, anemone, and lupines are folded at night 
or during stormy weather. The movements of twining 
plants, such as the morning-glory, pole-beans, and others 
can be studied easily from plants in boxes in the school- 
room. When such a plant begins to " run," it takes a slow 
revolving motion, the tip feeling for some support upon 
which to climb. As soon as this is found the twining mo- 
tion begins. What is the direction of this motion? Is it 
similar or opposite to the motion of the hands of a clock? 
Do any plants twine in the opposite direction? 

The motion of tendrils in such plants as peas, grapes, 
passion vines, wild cucumber, and pumpkin is also easily 
seen. Leaf stems of some plants are similarly sensitive and 
act as tendrils. The nasturtium is a familiar example. 
Root tips show a marked sensibility. This enables them to 
seek the line of growth that offers the least resistance in 
their extension into the soil, also to locate plant food even 
at a considerable distance. The following is a simple ex- 
periment that will illustrate the movement of root tips: 

Suspend several peas or beans in a moist box until they 
begin germinating. To the growing points of the roots of 
two or three attach a very small bit of thin card by means 
of a little mucilage or glue. Note that the root tips so 
treated tend afterward to grow toward the bit of card, re- 
sulting in very crooked roots. The roots of the others 
grow straight downward. 

There are tramps and paupers in the vegetable world; 
they are the parasites. Through parasitism they have long 



PLANT STUDY 1 8/ 

lost the power of independent existence. The different 
varieties of mistletoe are interesting plants that never have 
Parasitic any direct connection with the soil. The 

Plants viscid material surrounding the seeds serves 

to make them adhere to the bark of trees, where they 
germinate and grow. The common dodder, or love vine, 
is a degenerate morning-glory. Its seeds germinate in 
the ground as other seeds do, but, unless the young plant 
finds a host upon which to prey before the food substance 
of the seed is exhausted, it dies. Through disuse, it has 
lost its leaves, which are represented by scale-like organs 
that are functionless. It has also lost the power to pro- 
duce chlorophyl ; hence, the absence of the green color char- 
acteristic of plants, and of the power to assimilate plant 
food taken directly from the soil. Therefore it does not 
retain connection with the soil after the first week or two 
of its life. It forms its snake-like vines, its flowers, and its 
seeds from food stolen through many root-like organs, 
which it thrusts through the bark of its host, the plant upon 
which it lives. This parasite is known by its yellow or 
orange color. The story of its life contains a strong moral 
lesson which applies to human affairs, the loss of power 
through a lack of use. 

A subject that abounds in interest for pupils and that is 
of great practical value is the propagation of plants. Fill 
pots or boxes with coarse, sharp sand, 
of °^nV°° Make cuttings of two or three buds each. 

In planting, leave one bud above the sur- 
face of the sand. Keep the sand moist, not wet. Try 
cuttings of the following plants, — grape, currant, fig, rose, 
geranium, carnation, and chrysanthemum. For the best 



1 88 METHODS IN TEACHING 

results place the cuttings in the sand in November or De- 
cember. In the spring try rooting oleander and willow in 
bottles of water. 

A modification of propagation by cuttings is known as 
layering. A branch of the plant from which the cutting 
is to be made is cut partly off and pegged down in a shal- 
low trench. It is then covered with soil for a few inches 
above and below the point where the cut was made. 
Plants which refuse ordinarily to grow from cuttings root 
easily by this method. If the branch to be rooted is part 
of a tree, or if, for any reason, it can not be bent to the 
ground, it can be layered by pegging it in a box of earth, 
which is placed upon a support high enough for the pur- 
pose. Very interesting, also, are the processes of budding 
and grafting, so indispensable in horticulture. These are 
very simple, easily taught, and of unquestionable value to 
any pupil. 

The work of plants in the disintegration of rocks, both 
by growth of roots into faults and seams of rock strata and 
by the dissolving action of acid secretions 
Soil Makers ^^^^ furnish material for experiment and 

discussion, as will also the work of the 
roots of leguminous plants, clover, peas, etc., in furnishing 
free nitrogen to the soil. Have pupils dig up roots of clover 
and examine the nodules which stud them thickly. These 
nodules contain bacteria which have the power of making 
soil nitrogen from that in the air, thus making it available 
for plant food. The importance of this work will be better 
appreciated by pupils if they understand that, of the plant 
foods, nitrogen is one of the most difficult to supply to 



PLANT STUDY 1 89 

soils. It explains, also, the value of the clover crop when 

used in rotation with other crops. 

Discuss with pupils the work of plants in the formation 

of the coal series, — peat, bitumen, lignite, bituminous and 

anthracite coal, and graphite. Also the 
Plants in „ - , 1 . , , • , 

Land Building effect of plant growth m delta regions and 

low coasts in holding and increasing depo- 
sition of sediments, thus adding to land area. In this con- 
nection mention especially the swamp grasses, reeds, man- 
groves, and willows. 



CHAPTER XI 

ANIMAL STUDY: THE AQUARIUM; THE INSECT CAGE; 
OTHER ANIMALS 

At least two lines of animal study will commend them- 
selves to the teacher because of the relatively large returns 
obtained from a small expenditure of time. These are the 
study of life by means of the aquarium and of the insect 
cage. The uses of the aquarium in nature study are so 
many and so important that it may be con- 
Aquarium sidered almost a necessity. To be success- 
ful with the aquarium, we must imitate 
somewhat closely the conditions that exist in open ponds, 
for these are natural aquaria. During the warmer season 
such ponds teem with animal and vegetable life. Ponds 
present a great amount of surface to the air; in a sense, 
they breathe. That is, they are constantly giving off car- 
bon dioxide, and receiving oxygen by diffusion. In ponds 
containing a large amount of plant life this exchange is 
largely between the water and the plants. Our aquarium 
presents relatively less surface to the air, so it must contain 
a greater amount of aquatic plant life, such as normally 
produces its green tissues vmder water. Some plants of 
this nature are the different varieties of swamp grasses, 
water-crowfoot, water milfoil, and the fresh water algae. 
Plants which produce their green parts above the surface 
of the water and those which float upon it do not supply 
oxygen to the aquarium, although they may add to its 
beauty or may serve other important purposes. 

190 



ANIMAL STUDY I9I 

Any clear-sided vessel having a large mouth and a capac- 
ity from a quart up may be used in the study of some form 
of aquatic life. A more pretentious rec- 
y ® - tangular aquarium may be secured at mod- 

erate cost, and with proper care will be an 
ornament as well as a center of unfailing interest in any 
schoolroom. Having secured a suitable vessel, place in the 
bottom a layer of washed sand and gravel. In this place 
cuttings of swamp grasses, bulbs of the calla or arrow- 
leaf, or roots of the umbrella plant, if the vessel is a large 
one. Fill with clear water, preferably from a pond, taking 
care that in pouring it in the force of the stream is broken 
so that the material already in the bottom is not disar- 
ranged. After filling add water milfoil (myriophyllum), 
or if this can not be secured, any plant that grows with 
its green part submerged. In the absence of more suitable 
plants fresh water alga, the green scum of ponds, may be 
used. If this is used, care should be taken to secure that 
which is in vigorous growth, as will be shown by its bright 
green color. The aquarium is now ready for animal life. 
Certain forms of life, although living in the water, are 
air breathers, and so do not tend to exhaust the water of 
its oxygen. The aquarium may contain 
Animal ^^^ number of such creatures, consistent 

with the food supply. Turtles, water- 
beetles, back-swimmers, water-boatmen, and the larvae of 
mosquitoes and gnats are of this kind. Turtles exist upon 
animal food, which should be supplied very sparingly, as 
whatever is not eaten quickly contaminates the water. 
They are not very satisfactory animals for the aquarium, 
unless it is very large. In case they are kept a float should 



192 METHODS IN TEACHING 

be provided for them to climb upon when they wish to leave 
the water. The insects mentioned, if kept in reasonable 
numbers, will find food for themselves. Such insects are 
found in ponds and watering troughs. The eggs of the 
mosquito will be found in little rafts, which look like flakes 
of soot floating on the surface of the water. Placed in the 
aquarium these eggs hatch in a few days. Pupils should 
see the insects emerge from the eggs ; they should continue 
their observations until the final change into the perfect 
insect takes place. This will occur in from ten to fourteen 
days after hatching. For close examination place a half 
dozen of the wrigglers in a glass of water and use a hand 
lens of moderate power. Soon after hatching mount a 
very small one in a drop of water. Place cover-slip on it 
very lightly and examine under the low power of a com- 
pound microscope, as a transparent object. Make out the 
digestive canal, mouthparts, eyes, and the air tubes (tra- 
chece) where they connect with the breathing pore at the 
caudal end of the insect. Aside from their nature study 
value, mosquito larvae furnish food to other animals which 
may be kept in the same vessel. 

The dragon flies are also very Interesting creatures for 
the aquarium. In autumn, along the reedy margins of 
permanent ponds, several species of dragon 
j,j.gg fly may be found depositing their eggs. 

Certain of the larger species pierce the 
reed stems just below the surface of the water with the 
ovipositor, and deposit the eggs in the slit-like openings 
thus made. Watch the female at work, and when she has 
finished cut off the piece of reed containing the eggs and 
transfer It to a small clear-sided jar of water. When the 



ANIMAL STUDY 1 93 

young appear a week or two later, place some mosquito 
eggs in the jar. These on hatching will provide food for 
the young dragon flies for a time. As they grow larger, 
supply any small soft-bodied insects or even small earth- 
worms, in addition to the young mosquitoes. Still later, 
small poliwogs will be acceptable to them. Dragon fly 
nymphs are voracious feeders, and, if their food is not 
supplied, they will eat one another. Children will be inter- 
ested in their manner of feeding, breathing, moulting, and 
locomotion, as well as in the final change when they emerge 
from the water, make their last moult, and take the adult 
form. This should occur in May or June; and, if at this 
time there are no plants with stems projecting above the 
surface of the water in the aquarium, some reed stems 
should be placed in it for them to crawl out upon. The 
children should now be told something about the life of a 
fully matured insect. Boys know it as the " mosquito 
hawk," " darning needle," " snake doctor," and " snake 
feeder." Its first name is deserved, for it does feed upon 
small insects taken upon the wing; but the last names are 
misleading, as it sustains no known relations with snakes. 

Water beetles, both larvae and adults, are interesting 
objects in aquaria, but they are quite destructive to other 
forms of life with which they are associated 
Beetles ^^ nature. If kept alone they may be fed 

on bits of fresh meat, earthworms, tadpoles 
of frogs. The larvae, sometimes called water-tigers, should 
be kept in shallow vessels, as they are air breathers and 
must be able to reach the surface of the water with their 
breathing organs. 

The water boatmen and the backswimmers, two very 
14 



194 METHODS IN TEACHING 

active water bugs, add much to the interest in the aquarium 

by their rapid movements and by their 

a er oa men pg^^jj^j. ^^ethod of carrying^ a bubble of air 
Backswmiiners ^ ^ o 

with them for respiration. Under water, 

this has much the color and brightness of a drop of mer- 
cury. 

Pond snails are easily obtained. The eggs, deposited on 
the glass or on stems of plants, are valuable for showing 

active cell division. Mount some in a lit- 
Pond Snails , , , , . 

tie water m a watch crystal, and examme 

with a microscope of low power. If the eggs are taken 
when quite fresh, an hour or two after they are deposited, 
the beginning of segmentation can be followed for the first 
ten hours, or until the cells become too small to be seen 
with the low power. Later, the developing eye and heart 
can be made out, and still later, the motion of the young 
snail itself in the egg. These snails are found in permanent 
ponds, watering troughs, and streams. Daphne, cyclops, 
and other " water fleas " are very small crustaceans, num- 
bers of which are to be found in temporary rain ponds in 
spring. They add interest and furnish food for other 
forms of life, looking out for themselves and requiring no 
attention on the part of those who care for the aquarium. 

If muck from the bottom of a permanent pond or of a 
sluggish stream is used on the floor of the aquarium instead 

of the layer of coarse sand or gravel, or if 

Fresh T^ater 

« , the muck is mixed with this regular cover- 

ing, a small specimen of the fresh water 

mussel can be kept. 
With the first heavy rains of winter and spring the adult 

salamanders appear in considerable numbers in the ponds. 



ANIMAL STUDY 195 

Owing to their nocturnal habits they are seen by com- 
paratively few people. They are easily secured, however, 

at this time of the year by raking out the 
Salamanders , ,,,,.. , ^, 

leaves and other debris from ponds. These 

adults, after being kept a few days for examination, should 

be returned to the ponds. The eggs are deposited singly 

or in masses, enclosed in a jelly-like substance adhering to 

twigs or to the stems of plants in the ponds. 

Secure the eggs as fresh as possible, place them in small 
vessels, and note development. If secured very soon after 
being deposited, the division of the egg can be seen with 
the unaided eye. Later, note the formation of the spinal 
groove in the embryo; and still later, just before the young 
are ready to hatch, note the budding and growth of the 
external gills at the neck. Two or three days after hatch- 
ing, the young salamander begins to feed. At first, it finds 
food in the microscopic forms that are normally present in 
the aquarium ; later, it feeds upon the water fleas and mos- 
quito larvae; and, still later, the tadpoles of frogs will sup- 
ply its needs. In the absence of the latter it may be given 
a small earthworm. If fed in this way it soon learns to 
rise and take food from the hand when hungry. 

Note that the young salamander is fish-like at first, and 
that the fore-legs appear soon after hatching as bud-like 
growths just behind the gills. The hind legs appear much 
later. A few days after hatching, the circulation of the 
blood through the gills can be most beautifully seen under 
the low power of the compound microscope. Place the 
young salamander in a watch crystal of water and examine 
the gills as transparent objects. Note that the blood in 
such small amounts is not red, but a very light straw color. 



196 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Explain why to the pupils. Note the interruption of the 
blood current by the pulse. Note also the currents of water 
flowing past the gills. These currents are kept up by rap- 
idly moving cilia, difficult to see even with the high powers, 
owing to their small size and rapid motions. 

To see all these things requires time and much patience, 
as the little creature frequently moves out of the field of 
view and must be brought back again by moving the watch 
glass so as to bring the animal again under the objective. 
It is worth all the trouble, however, for there is probably 
no better object lesson on the circulation of the blood. 

A little later in the season the frogs and toads appear in 
great numbers in the ponds, adding their choruses to the 
other subtle sounds and influences of spring. 
The eggs are similar to those of the sala- 
mander, but they are loosely coherent in masses of fifty 
or more, attached to plants or floating free according to 
the species by which they are deposited. The development 
of the tadpole is similar to that of the larval salamander. 
It has no external gills except when very young, and it 
feeds almost exclusively upon vegetable matter. The legs 
develop in the reverse order to those of the salamander, and 
in the final change the tail is completely absorbed. At the 
same time the digestive system undergoes pronounced 
changes to fit it for the exclusive insect diet of the adult 
stage. Respiration in frogs and salamanders takes place 
not only through the gills, but through the skin every- 
where, and through the widely expanded tail-fin, which is 
plentifully supplied with capillary vessels. In the adults 
of both forms lungs take the place of gills. 



ANIMAL STUDY 1 9/ 

Fish are, perhaps, the least desirable of all the animals 

suited to aquaria. One or two very small 

fish may be desirable during seasons when 

other material is scarce. 

The price of success in all work with the aquarium is 

extreme care against overstocking with animals which take 

oxygen directly from the water. For the 
Caution , ^ . / , 

best practical results use. several vessels 

having capacities of from one to six quarts, rather than one 
large aquarium. As young forms, such as tadpoles, de- 
velop, remove all but two or three of each kind, as crowded 
conditions and insufficient food are fatal to good results. 
Food supply is very important with the young of all ani- 
mals. Once started, the whole care of the aquarium may 
be given over to trusty pupils. 

The Insect Cage 

The rearing of insects in an insect cage is much simpler 
than the caring for animals in an aquarium; consequently, 
the former is better adapted to work with young children, 
although its value is just as great with older pupils. 

The cages may be very simple, — a flower pot with a wire 

cover, a small box or a glass jar with a little slightly moist 

_, ^ earth in the bottom, or a more elaborate 

The Cage 

affair made for the purpose. A good form 

for the latter is a rectangular box, two feet long, one foot 

wide, and sixteen inches high, with space in the bottom 

for a tray three inches deep for soil. The sides may be of 

glass, and, to secure ventilation, the ends may be of wire 

screen. The lid should be on the top and hinged; it may 



198 METHODS IN TEACHING 

be solid or covered with wire screen. Fill the tray with 
loose soil, slightly moist, and the cage is ready for use. 

As a beginning ask the pupils to bring in any caterpillars, 
noting on what plants they are feeding so that fresh food 
may be supplied every day. If there is any 
difficulty in finding caterpillars, direct the 
children to look for them on parsley, sweet anise, milkweed, 
tomato, cabbage, tobacco, and cheese weed. Secure some 
of the eggs, for it is desirable to have the pupils see the 
development of some of the species from the egg stage. 

When the caterpillars reach full development, they will 
become restless and crawl about seeking a place in which 
to make their transformation. Note whether a cocoon is 
formed or the chrysalis is simply hung in position, and 
how. Some of the caterpillars found in the early spring 
and late summer will complete their changes into moths 
or butterflies in a few weeks ; others, especially those taken 
rather late in autumn, will remain in the chrysalis stage 
until the next spring. 

The eggs of grasshoppers may be secured in autumn by 
catching the females and allowing them to deposit their 
eggs in the soil in the bottom of the cage. Early in the 
spring sow barley or wheat in the soil to furnish food for 
the young when hatched. Eggs of the katydid are sure to 
be found on twigs. Place these in the cage for hatching. 
The young will feed upon the leaves of black walnut. The 
caterpillars of the sphynx moths, found upon the tomato, 
tobacco, and grape, burrow into the soil when they have 
finished feeding. 

Other insects profitable for study are the aphids, or plant 
lice ; the lady bugs, which feed upon them ; the lace-winged 



ANIMAL STUDY 199 

flies; the ant lions, which form the curious, funnel-shaped 
traps for catching their prey; and, where the leaves of the 
white mulberry are found, there are the silkworms. Any 
of the insects mentioned can be reared successfully in a 
closed cage containing a little soil, if there is good ventila- 
tion and a daily supply of fresh food. Most caterpillars 
can be reared in open pasteboard boxes, but mice destroy 
them, and they wander much just before entering the chry- 
salis stage. 

Lessons on Other Animals 

In the lower grades it will be found worth while to make 
comparative studies of such animals as the chicken and the 
duck, the cat and the rabbit, the dog and the sheep, the cow 
and the horse, and other familiar animals. Have the pupils 
discuss under guidance and in a comparative way struc- 
ture, food, general habits, keenness of sight, smell, and 
hearing, and the various uses of animals to man. 

The common birds should be known by name; there 
should be discussions on the habits of those 
that are well known, — nest-building, food, 
song, migration. 

Study the dog as to the general features of his structure. 

Compare with the cat. Tell the pupils what is known of 

the oris:in of the domestic dog. Discuss 
The Dog Til 

varieties and their uses to man. Lead the 

pupils to a consideration of the characteristics which make 
dogs interesting companions or servants, — faithfulness, 
affection, obedience, courage, strength, speed, and the won- 
derfully keen senses. With older pupils discuss peculiar 
habits, such as howling, burying bones, turning about before 



200 METHODS IN TEACHING 

lying down, and other instinctive acts that persist to Hnk 
the dog to his wild ancestry. Discuss the wild dogs, — 
wolf, jackal, hyena, dingo, fox. 

Discuss with older pupils the importance of animals in 
subsoiling and admitting air and moisture to the soil. This 
is performed by earthworms, ants, moles, 
c°i"^i^^^-i.^^ field mice, gophers, prairie dogs, ground 

squirrels, and by the animals that burrow 
or bury articles; also by the many forms of animal life 
that hasten the decay of dead trees and other vegetable mat- 
ter by boring and tunneling, thus letting in air and mois- 
ture. 

In connection with (geography discuss the animal origin 
of limestone, chalk, ana coral islands. 



CHAPTER XII 



NON-LIVING THINGS 



In the lower grades evaporation may be presented very 

simply. Take plenty of time to prove that, while some of 

the water that disappears after a rain is 
Evaporation ^^ 

absorbed into the ground, much of it passes 

into the air as invisible water vapor. Show that water in 

closed vessels will remain indefinitely, while that In open 

vessels is soon taken away by the air. Boiling a small 

quantity of water shows that heat hastens evaporation. 

For grades above the first two, the experiments may be 
extended to the evaporation of volatile liquids, such as 
alcohol, gasoline, ether, chloroform, carbon-bisulphide, 
cologne, and many others. Only a teaspoonful or two 
should be used of those substances which vaporize rapidly 
into highly inflammable gases. Pour into the hollow of 
a pupil's hand a small amount of one of the liquids men- 
tioned, and caution him not to spill it. The liquid soon 
disappears ; if it has a strong odor it can be smelled through- 
out the room, so helping tell the story of its diffusion 
through the air. 

Next make a series to test the comparative rapidity of 
the evaporation of several liquids. Arrange small, shallow 
dishes with labels showing what each one is to contain. 
The following liquids may be used, — glycerine, water, coal 
oil, turpentine, alcohol, gasoline, carbon-bisulphide, and 
chloroform. Use equal amounts of these substances, and 

20I 



202 METHODS IN TEACHING 

determine the order of the rapidity of evaporation. Satur- 
ate some cotton with the Hquid that evaporates most rapidly, 
wrap the cotton around the bulb of a thermometer, having 
first noted the temperature indicated by the dry bulb. 
Swing the thermometer in the air to hasten the evapora- 
tion, and note the rapid fall of the mercury. Bring out 
in discussion that evaporation cools the surface from which 
it occurs. Why does moistening the skin even with warm 
water make it feel cooler when exposed to the air? Why 
does it feel cooler when moistened with alcohol or ether 
instead of water? Why are wet cloths put around jugs 
and casks of drinking water? What is the effect of the 
evaporation of perspiration upon the temperature of the 
body? Where would this effect be greater, in regions 
where the air is moist or dry? Why are sunstrokes more 
common in moist climates than in dry ones? 

Discuss the formation of dew, fog, clouds, rain, and 
snow. Have the class see the clouds growing larger on 

days when there is a falling barometer, and 
Condensation , . , . ^. 

smaller when the weather is clearmg. Dis- 
tinguish between true vapor, which is invisible, and fogs 
and clouds, which are visible. The immense, flat-bottomed 
cloud masses that fill the sky on spring days, and the great 
cumulus clouds commonly called " thunder heads " are 
really parts of vapor masses reaching to the earth ; only the 
tops are visible, however, because these lie in currents 
of air sufficiently cold to condense them into fog. The 
lower and warmer layer may be from half a mile to a mile 
in depth. Often two layers of air can be made out above 
this, when the clouds at different heights float in different 



NON-LIVING THINGS 203 

directions. In quiet weather the column of smoke from a 
large fire will often have a cloud-tipped top. Explain. 

It is a fact not very generally known that water vapor 
will diffuse through a vacuum as quickly as it will through 
air. In other words, the presence of air is in no way essen- 
tial to the process of evaporation, which is even prevented 
if the air is already saturated with water vapor. Why then 
does not the earth lose some of its water supply by evapora- 
tion into space? Why should high ranges of mountains 
prove barriers for moisture in winds? 

Experiments in magnetism are full of interest for the 

younger pupils. These should include a study of both the 

bar and the horseshoe magnet. Show the 
Magnetism . . , . , 

hues of magnetic force by covermg the 

magnet with a sheet of paper upon which iron filings are 
gently sifted. If blue print paper is used and exposed to 
sunshine for two or three minutes, a permanent print may 
be secured showing the lines of force. Suspend magnetized 
needles by fine silk threads, noting their direction when the 
motion stops. Show the practical application of the mag- 
net in the mariner's compass. What other uses might it 
have? With older pupils take up in an elementary way 
the electro-magnet in some of its simpler applications, such 
as the electric bell, a part of telephone receivers, telegraph 
instruments. 

Provide a florence flask fitted with a rubber stopper 
which has been bored to fit small glass tubing. Secure a 

piece of glass tubing five or six feet long; 
Expansion ... 

By Heat P^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ openmg m the stopper so 

that all connections are air tight. The re- 
sulting piece of apparatus is of course full of air, and the 



204 METHODS IN TEACHING 

attention of the pupils should be called to this fact. Im- 
merse the free end of the glass tube in a shallow dish of 
water and clasp the bulb (flask) with the hands. Almost 
immediately bubbles of air begin to escape from the tube. 
Why? Hold the bulb some distance above a Bunsen 
burner or an alcohol lamp ; heat carefully, until as much of 
the air as possible has been driven out. Keeping the end 
of the tube submerged in water, allow the bulb to cool 
slowly; note that water travels up through the tube into 
the flask. Why? Now empty the water from the flask 
and tube. Warm the bulb as before by clasping the hands 
about it. When a small amount of air has been forced out, 
let the bulb cool enough to suck up three or four inches 
of ink or colored water. Hold the flask upright and let the 
water sink through the tube almost to the bulb. The in- 
strument will now be found to be very sensitive to the 
slightest change of temperature in the bulb, the short col- 
umn of water being forced up or down through the tube 
by the expansion or contraction of the air in the flask. 
With a little practice in handling this " air thermometer," 
very interesting, positive results may be obtained. In such 
experiments pupils should furnish the explanations for the 
phenomena observed. They should also be able to explain 
the popping of corn and chestnuts when heat is applied, 
the blowing out of bicycle tires when left in the hot sun, 
and similar occurrences. 

For showing the expansion of liquids the same apparatus 
can be used. Fill the flask full of water that has been 
boiled to remove the air and afterward allowed to become 
cold. Press the stopper into the mouth of the flask until 



NON-LIVING THINGS 20$ 

the water rises in the tube a few inches. Mark the height 
of the water in the tube by tying a string around it at the 
point to which the water rises. Heat the flask slowly over 
a gas or alcohol flame, and note the rising of the water in 
the tube. Why does it rise? Does it expand as much as 
air? Which is more elastic, air or water? Water which 
has been expanded to a gaseous form (steam) is very 
elastic. 

The expansion of water by freezing may be taken up 
here or in connection with dynamic geography. Experi- 
ments along this line are very interesting to pupils. Fill 
a heavy glass bottle, a small necked one is best, and stop 
with a tight-fitting cork. Place in a freezing mixture of 
broken ice and salt. In a few minutes the bottle is broken 
in pieces by the expansion of the freezing water. The ex- 
periment is more striking if a short piece of heavy iron pipe 
is used instead of the bottle. The pipe should be capped 
at the ends with the regulation caps or plugs used by 
plumbers. 

For the purpose of showing the expansive action of heat 
upon metals, secure a piece of brass or iron tubing about 
an inch in diameter and six inches long and a solid brass 
or iron ball which will just pass through the bore of the 
tube when both are cold. If the tube is difficult to get, 
an iron ring will answer the purpose. Heat the ball a few 
minutes, and it will be found too large to go through the 
tube. Set the tube upright in a shallow vessel with the ball 
resting in the opening at the top. Pour cold water upon 
the ball, which, upon cooling, passes easily through the tube 
as before. Another method of showing the same effect is 



206 METHODS IN TEACHING 

as follows : Take a rod of iron, copper, or brass, about two 
feet long, and place it in a horizontal position with one end 
against any solid object. Let the other end touch the short 
arm of a lever which acts as an indicator. Now heat the 
rod, and it will be noticed that it expands and moves the 
indicator. Why does the blacksmith heat wagon tires be- 
fore putting them upon the wheels ? Why are small spaces 
left between the ends of rails on a railway? Why does the 
column of mercury rise in warm weather and fall in cold? 
In connection with the expansion of gases and liquids by 
heat, air and water currents may be taken up. For the 

study of air currents there should be pro- 
wlttr Currents ^^^^^ ^ glass-sided box, air tight, except 

for openings which may be closed when 
necessary. Such a box may be eight or ten inches high, 
eighteen inches long, and from six to ten inches wide. The 
sides should be of glass, puttied in, and a door at one end 
should be as nearly air tight as possible. Augur holes, of 
a size that they may be closed by means of large cork stop- 
pers, should be bored in the top near each end, and some 
may also be bored at different heights in the end opposite 
the door.^ A burning candle will act as a stove in the room 
thus made. If the box is fairly tight and all openings are 
closed, the candle flame will go out in a few moments after 
it is lighted. Why? Now open the holes at the top and 
place the lighted candle under one of them. Test the direc- 
tion of the air currents by holding smoking punk or touch 

*The glass-sided box described above is very satisfactory for the 
work indicated, but it is not indispensable. A pasteboard box with- 
out glass may be used, although it will be less satisfactory. 



NON-LIVING THINGS 20/ 

paper^ over the opening under which the Hghted candle 
was placed. The smoke from the punk indicates the true 
direction of the air current. Now hold the punk near the 
other opening. In which direction is the air moving here? 
Which is lighter, air that is expanded by heat or cold air? 
Explain the direction of the currents as shown by the move- 
ments of the smoke. Take the temperature of the school- 
room at the floor and at the ceiling. Where is the warmer 
air? Why? 

Close the openings at the top of the box and open two 
at the end, one near the bottom, the other near the top. 
Test with the burning punk as before. Which shows an 
inflowing current, the upper or the lower opening? Is air 
flowing out of the other opening? Explain. Make clear 
the cause of the currents thus set up. Does the cooler, 
heavier air flow in to take the place of the warm air that is 
rising, or does the cooler air, owing to its greater weight, 
cause the warmed air to rise? 

On a quiet day, when there is a brisk fire in the school- 
room, close all openings except one window. This should 
be open at both top and bottom for six inches or a fooii 
Test the air at the bottom to find the direction of the cur- 
rent by suspending a light sheet of paper from the lower 
edge of the window sash. Test in the same way the cur- 
rent through the upper opening. If conditions are favor- 
able the results will speak for themselves very definitely. 
Now open the window from the bottom only by raising 
both sashes as high as possible. Test the upper and lower 

^ Touch paper is easily made by soaking blotting paper in a sat- 
urated solution of saltpeter. When dry the paper burns slowly 
and with much smoke, making a good substitute for Chinese punk 
sticks. 



208 METHODS IN TEACHING 

parts of this opening for the direction of the air currents. 
Explain. Have the pupils draw a diagram of the room, 
representing by arrows the direction of the air currents in 
it, and indicating which are warm and which are cold. 

For showing currents in water, fill a florence flask or 
other thin-sided glass vessel with water which has been 
previously boiled to free it from air bubbles. Floating par- 
ticles of sawdust or paper may be placed in it to show the 
movements of the currents. Heat very gently, and note the 
results. Or, with a glass tube which has one end drawn 
to a fine capillary tube, let into the bottom of a thin glass 
jar or flask some ink or colored water. (The vessel should, 
of course, be filled with water before this is done.) Touch 
the bottom of the jar with a heated rod or with the blaze 
of a match, and a column of ink will quickly rise from the 
bottom. This is a striking experiment, but its preparation 
takes some time and patience. 

In discussions with pupils in the higher grades connect 

the experiments on air currents with the larger movements 

of air upon the surface of the earth. 

Mr Currents Areas of low pressure are heated areas in 
0\.-r , . , . . J 

The Earth which air currents are moving upward 

from the surface of the earth; they are in- 
dicated by the word " low " on weather charts. " Highs " 
are areas i ■» which cooled masses of air are sinking to the 
surface of the earth. The equatorial calms are a heated 
belt characterized by upward currents of air. The calms 
of the " horse latitudes *' are characterized by descending 
currents. All upward movements of air (" lows ") tend to 
produce rain storms ; downward moving masses (" highs ") 
generally indicate fair weather. 



NON-LIVING THINGS 20g 

Pupils already know that water and other liquids have 

weight. Discuss with them the comparative weight of 

water, oil, molasses, mercury, and other 

Pressure of liquids. Construct a hydrometer as fol- 

Liquids and 

Q^ggg^ lows: Fit a piece of light pine about the 

size of a lead pencil into a large cork, one 
about an inch in diameter by an inch and a quarter long 
will do. Load the bottom of the cork, so that when placed 
in a deep vessel of water the hydrometer will float per- 
pendicularly. When properly loaded, mark carefully upon 
the stick the level reached when the instrument floats at rest 
in pure water. Why does the instrument float? Because 
it is lighter than the water that it displaces. That is, it is 
lighter than the amount of water which would exactly equal 
it in bulk. To prove this, fill a vessel holding a gallon or 
more brimful of water. Set this in a larger vessel that will 
catch the overflow. Select some object that is heavy enough 
to give a considerable displacement and that does not water- 
soak, A drinking glass will do. If too light at the bot- 
tom to float upright, load it with a few nails or shot or even 
sand. Place it in the full vessel, and have the class note 
that as it sinks to its level the water overflows into the larger 
vessel. Now weigh both the object used as a float and the 
water that overflowed, and the weights will be found to be 
equal. 

When pupils understand this simple demonstration of the 
law of floating bodies as it applies to objects in water, dis- 
cuss with them the density of different liquids. What 
liquids are lighter than water? Those most easily secured 
for experiment are alcohol and the various kinds of oils. 
Liquids heavier than water are salt water, sugar solutions, 
15 



210 METHODS IN TEACHING 

molasses, and mercury. Test with the hydrometer. Test 
mercury with shot, pieces of iron, and pebbles. 

Into a test-tube about six inches long and one inch in 
diameter put equal amounts of water, mercury, and oil. 
Do the liquids mix? Drop a buck-shot or other small 
piece of metal into the tube. Note that it sinks in both 
the water and the oil but that it floats on the mercury. By 
careful trial find a substance that floats on water but which 
is too heavy to float on oil ; and, finally, find some substance 
that is light enough to float on gasoline. Cork the tube 
tightly, invert it, and note that the liquids rearrange them- 
selves according to their several weights. Demonstrate by 
means of the hydrometer that strong salt water is heavier 
than fresh water. Show the same fact by actually weigh- 
ing equal amounts. 

Water weighs about sixty-two and a half pounds to the 
cubic foot. In a tank, ten feet deep, what is the pressure 
on each square foot of the bottom when the tank is filled 
with water? Would a fish near the bottom of the tank 
be under a greater pressure than one near the top ? Divers 
can work successfully only in comparatively shallow waters, 
from fifteen to thirty-five or forty feet deep. Why? Why 
are tanks for private water supply usually placed high above 
the ground? Have you ever seen standpipes used in con- 
nection with city water systems? Why are they used? 

We live at the bottom of a great sea of air which is vari- 
ously estimated at from fifty to four hundred miles deep. 
The pressure at the bottom is equal to the 
water pressure at the bottom of a tank 
about thirty feet deep. Our bodies, developing under this 
constant pressure, are not only used to the tremendous 



NON-LIVING THINGS 211 

weight thus always borne, but they need it to keep them in 
compact, soHd form. Thus air seems to us as nothing, 
except in its unusual manifestations. We commonly say 
that a vessel is empty when it is full of air, and the fact 
that air and other invisible gases are really forms of matter 
is not always easy to make plain to the child mind. 

In the lower grades this fact should be made plain by 
discussion and by simple experiments. Discuss with the 
children the movements of air that can be felt, — the blow- 
ing of the wind ; rising currents from heated stoves ; move- 
ments of clouds, which are simply masses of fog high above 
the earth, floating in variable currents of air ; the movement 
of dust and other light objects or even of small pebbles by 
the wind. We can hear, feel, and in a sense even see air. 
It supports the bird in its flight, the boys' kites, and toy 
balloons. Under compression it is even used for cushions 
and mattresses; it can be made solid enough to sustain 
great weight, as when it is pumped into bicycle and auto- 
mobile tires, thus being greatly compressed. 

Invert a jar and force it mouth down into a vessel that 
contains water. Does the water rise to fill the jar? Why 
not? Fill a drinking glass nearly full of water. Put a 
card over its mouth and invert the glass, holding the card 
during the process. Now take the hand away from the 
card; it will be found that the card remains in place and 
that the water does not flow out. Why not? Now lower 
the glass mouth down into a vessel of water, and as soon as 
it is touching the water remove the card. The water still 
remains in the glass. Why? With a crooked tube let air 
into the upper part of the glass, and the water flows out 
until it reaches the level of that in the vessel. Why ? Fas- 



212 METHODS IN TEACHING 

ten a toy balloon to a glass tube ten inches in length, and 
thrust the other end upward through a bored cork that will 
fit a large florence flask. Thrust the end having the balloon 
attached into the flask until the cork fits snugly the mouth 
of the flask. Try to inflate the balloon by forcing air into 
the outer end of the tube. It can not be done. Why not? 
Withdraw the cork a very little way, inflate the balloon, and 
replace the cork. The balloon remains inflated. Why? 
Take two test-tubes, one of which is enough smaller than 
the other to slide easily into it. Fill the larger one nearly 
full of water ; put the end of the smaller tube into the larger 
one until it displaces the water to a depth of about an inch 
and a half. Invert the tubes in this position over a vessel 
to catch the water. As the water slowly trickles out of the 
larger tube, air pressure forces the smaller one into it. 
This is a very striking experiment for pupils of any grade 
above the fourth. 

Another that holds interest quite as well is the following : 
Secure a board, two feet long, ten inches wide, and half 
an inch thick. It should be of tough wood. Place it upon 
a table or desk so that nearly half of it projects over the 
edge. Now spread two or three thicknesses of newspaper 
over the end that is on the table. Direct one of the stronger 
boys of the class to strike a quick, heavy blow downward on 
the projecting end. The class, as well as the boy, will be 
greatly surprised to find that the board is scarcely moved, 
owing to air pressure acting upon the board and paper. 
The paper, of course, simply prevents air from passing 
quickly under the board. Thus the blow meets the resis- 
tance of the pressure on the upper surface of the board, the 
whole of which in this case would amount to nearly a ton. 



NON-LIVING THINGS 213 

Other manifestations and uses of air pressure are seen in 
the use of the siphon and the common Hfting pump. 

The measure of air pressure may be taken up with pupils 
of the sixth grade and above. Introductory to the work 
of making a barometer the following will be helpful : Bend 
a piece of glass tubing into the form of the letter U. Fill 
the bend of the tube with mercury, and have the class note 
that when the tube is perpendicular the mercury stands at 
the same height in both sides. Call attention to the fact 
that the air presses with equal weight on the mercury in 
both tubes. Ask the class what would be the effect of blow- 
ing into one of the tubes, thus increasing the pressure on 
that side. This they will readily see. What is the effect 
of sucking some of the air out of one of the tubes ? Why ? 
Be sure that the class sees that difference in the force of 
air pressure makes the mercury stand higher in the tube 
in which the air pressure has been reduced by drawing out 
some of the air. 

The making of the barometer should follow. For this 

the following will be needed : A piece of glass tubing about 

thirty-six inches Ions: and one-fourth of an 
Barometer '^ * 

inch in diameter inside. This tube should 

be closed at one end. A piece of tube, the same diameter, 

twelve inches long, and open at both ends. Two pieces of 

strong rubber tubing, about six inches long, and large 

enough to fit snugly over the ends of the glass tubes. 

Enough mercury to a little more than fill the longer tube. 

A small funnel having a stem equal in diameter to that of 

the glass tube. ■ 

Connect the open end of the long tube to the shorter tube 

by means of the rubber hose. This should be tied tightly 



214 METHODS IN TEACHING 

with stout string at both connections. In the same way 
connect the funnel to the free end of the short tube. Now 
run a straight wire to the bottom of the tube thus formed, 
leaving a few inches projecting from the mouth of the 
funnel. Pour the mercury in very slowly, being careful to 
dislodge air bubbles by means of the wire. When the wire 
is finally removed, the mercury should a little more than fill 
the longer tube. Remove the funnel and its rubber connec- 
tion. Keeping the short tube in a perpendicular position, 
elevate the longer one until it is parallel with it. Notice 
as the longer tube assumes the vertical position, that the 
mercury falls a few inches in it and that there is a corre- 
sponding rise in the short tube. How much air pressure 
in the closed end of the long tube ? Pupils readily see that 
there is none, for there is no air there and the tube is closed. 
They also see that at the open end of the short tube air 
pressure acts normally. With a little thought they will be 
able to see that the weight of the column of mercury is sup- 
ported by air pressure acting upon the surface of the mer- 
cury in the short open tube. Would the same result be 
reached if the tubes were either larger or smaller? Yes. 
What is the height of the column of mercury supported? 
(Measure from the level of the column of mercury in the 
short tube.) If near the sea level, it should approximate 
thirty inches. A column of mercury one inch square and 
thirty inches high weighs fifteen pounds. Could we make 
a water barometer? How long would the longer tube be? 
Why can not water be pumped with an ordinary lifting 
pump more than thirty feet above the water level in the well 
or soil? 

Work in solution and crystallization may be undertaken 



NON-LIVING THINGS 215 

with pupils in any of the grades. Pupils should provide 
themselves with pieces of common window glass, about five 
Solution and ^^ ^^^ inches square. Prepare a saturated 
Crystalliza- solution (one in which there is as much of 

any given substance as will dissolve in the 
fluid) of common salt, and put a small puddle of it upon the 
pupils' pieces of glass. If the weather is dry and warm, 
salt crystals begin to appear in a few minutes. Watch their 
formation, using low power microscopes or hand magnifiers, 
if available. For larger crystals pour some of the solution 
into a glass or small dish and set it away for a few days. 
When the water has evaporated, discuss the shape and size 
of the crystals, how thy form, the time required, and many 
other points noticed. Then try solutions of sulphate of cop- 
per ("blue stone"), saltpeter, borax, epsom salts, hyposul- 
phite of soda, or any other crystalline substance soluble in 
water. 

With older pupils extend the work by considering sub- 
stances soluble in alcohol, as shellac, camphor gum, or 
crystals of iodine; substances soluble in oils, as resin, solu- 
ble in coal oil or gasoline; paraffin, soluble in turpentine; 
lime, soluble in dilute sulphuric acid. With these simple 
experiments as a basis, discuss any crystalline rocks which 
may be found in the region, such as crystal quartz, granite, 
marble, calcareous spar, stalactite formations. Call atten- 
tion to the different forms in which some substances arc 
found, as in the case of carbon, which may be in the form 
of a gas, common charcoal, mineral coal ; as a part of veg- 
etable and animal tissues ; graphite, of which lead pencils 
are made ; or the crystalline diamond, which because of its 



2l6 METHODS IN TEACHING 

beauty, its rarity, and its durability, is one of the most 
valued of gems. 

Children in general have little knowledge of the common 
metals. Specimens of these are easily secured, and should 

form a part of every school equipment. 
„ , , Where practicable, there should also be a 

collection of the common metallic ores. Of 
the various useful metals perhaps iron is best known; for 
this reason it should be studied first. Draw from the class 
what is already known concerning the sources of the iron 
supply in this country; distinguish between the terms 
wrought iron, cast iron; steel and cast steel. Discuss with 
the class such properties of iron as its strength, hardness 
in various forms, elasticity in tempered steel, weight, color, 
and ductility. Discuss its uses, adapting the discussion to 
the age and experience of the pupils. Direct attention to 
some of the many ways in which it is used in the school- 
room or building ; in the home ; in the city. What condi- 
tions hasten its decomposition? (Oxidation or rusting.) 
Why do we paint iron? By what other means do we ex- 
clude the air from iron and steel? The use of oil, zinc, 
tin, or silver for these purposes. The use of iron as a con- 
ductor of heat. Compare with wood in this respect; with 
copper; lead; aluminum. For this purpose place rods of 
several different metals in such a position that one end of 
each is in contact with an alcohol or gas flame. At the 
same distance from the heating ends of the rods, stick 
pieces of parafiin or tallow. Note on which one of the rods 
the tallow melts soonest, and the order in which it melts on 
all of them. Which metal is the best conductor of heat? 
Which is the poorest? 



NON-LIVING THINGS 21^ 

The following list of metals is suggested for a continu- 
ance of the work: lead, tin, copper, zinc, aluminum, silver, 
and that to the child most interesting of all metals, mercury. 
Compare each with iron in such properties as hardness, 
weight, strength, and discuss uses. Discuss also important 
alloys, as bronze and brass; also the reasons for making 
alloys. Where sufficient heat is easily available, young 
children especially will be much interested in seeing lead 
melted and used in casting bullets or even poured into cold 
water, where it takes on peculiar shapes. Mercury, at ordi- 
nary temperatures, remains in the melted state. At a tem- 
perature of forty degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, however, 
it hardens to a form somewhat like lead. 

Simple Chemistry of Air 

Provide a couple of ordinary candy jars; a shallow 
trough or basin with a capacity of two to four gallons; 
some rubber and glass tubing, one-fourth inch in diameter ; 
and a few medium-sized test-tubes with corks to fit. Have 
also some short pieces of wax or tallow candle, an ounce 
or two of potassium chlorate, three or four ounces of man- 
ganese dioxide (black oxide), and an alcohol lamp. 

Experiment. — Place a short piece of candle upon a float 
that is small enough to go easily into the mouth of the candy 
jar. Float the candle in an inch of water in a plate. Light 
the candle and invert the candy jar over it, letting its edge 
sink into the shallow water. Call the attention of the 
pupils to the fact that the jar is filled with air. At first, 
the flame burns brightly, but it soon grows dim and small, 
and after a few moments it goes out. Repeat the experi- 
ment, noting the water that rises into the jar. Why is the 



2l8 METHODS IN TEACHING 

flame extinguished? If no one is able to answer, explain, 

and repeat the experiment. Why does the water rise as the 

candle burns and for a short time after it is extinguished? 

Has any part of the air been actually used? Can anything 

be burned in it now ? Slip a piece of pasteboard under the 

mouth of the jar and hold it in place while the jar is turned 

right side up. Light a taper and thrust it into the jar. 

Does it burn? No. Now invert the jar over a piece of 

burning candle on the table. Can air get into it now? 

The candle burns for a time and then goes out. Lift the 

jar gently while still warm, cover, and turn right side up. 

Pour into the jar about a tablespoonful of clear lime water, 

and shake it thoroughly. Note that it turns milky, showing 

the presence of carbon dioxide. Explain the lime water 

test to pupils, and as a control experiment, shake some lime 

water in a vessel filled with pure air. The absence of milki- 

ness indicates that, if carbon dioxide is present at all in 

pure air, it is only in very minute quantity. As a matter 

of fact, it is about five parts in ten thousand. 

Fill a jar with water, place a card over its mouth, and 

invert into a vessel which already contains an inch or two 

of water with a capacity for at least as 

Collecting much more as the jar contains. Insert the 

Gases by 

Displacement ^^^ ^^ the delivery tube under the edge 

of the inverted jar, and the gas as gener- 
ated will displace the water. Collect by the above method 
a jar of breathed air, and test for oxygen and carbon diox- 
ide: the former, by means of the lighted taper; and the 
latter, with lime water. Repeat several times, if necessary, 
until the pupils see that air that has supported burning and 
air that has been breathed are very much alike in the fact 



NON-LIVING THINGS 2ig 

that they are both deficient in oxygen and contain an excess 
of carbon dioxide. Collect another jar of breathed air. 
If the breath is held for a few seconds the results will be 
more positive. Test for oxygen. It does not support a 
flame. Place a branch of some plant with fresh green 
leaves upon it in the jar. Invert the jar into a vessel of 
water as before, and put it into the sunlight. After two 
or three hours, test for oxygen ; it will be found to be pres- 
ent. Test for carbon dioxide. It has been absorbed by 
the plant and water. 

Place a mixture of equal parts of pulverized potassium 
chlorate and " black oxide " in a test-tube. Cork with a 
bored cork, which has tightly fitted into it 
Q a delivery tube composed of eight or ten 

inches of quarter inch glass tube and about 
two feet of rubber tubing. Heat the test-tube over an al- 
cohol or gas lamp, and collect by displacement the gas that 
is thus generated. This gas is oxygen. Test it by thrust- 
ing into it a piece of charcoal with a small spark of fire 
upon it, or a burning splinter after the blaze is extinguished, 
leaving a tiny, glowing coal at the end. In the oxygen 
these tiny sparks spring into life and burn fiercely. In a 
gas that so actively supports combustion green twigs, thin 
pieces of steel, as watch springs, and fine wire, burn bril- 
liantly, and drops of the molten metal fall to the bottom of 
the jar. Two or three inches of water left in the bottom 
of the jar will cool these and prevent the glass cracking in 
the intense heat. 

In a bottle holding about a quart, put a few marble chips 
or a couple of ounces of baking soda, and add water until 



220 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the bottle is a little more than half full. The cork for 
the bottle should be bored for the delivery tube and for a 

" thistle," or funnel tube. The delivery tube 
Dioxide should have about two feet of rubber tubing 

attached to the outer end, and its inner 
end should extend only just through the cork. Pour small 
quantities of either sulphuric or hydrochloric acid into the 
bottle by means of the funnel tube, which should reach 
almost to the bottom of the bottle. 

The gas that is given off is carbon dioxide ; it may either 
be collected by displacement or, by reason of its being con- 
siderably heavier than air, it may be allowed to flow into 
any deep vessel in a room where the air is quiet. When 
sufficient amount is secured, test it by a burning paper. 
Does it support burning? Would it support animal life? 
If the jar is large enough, drop a small, light soap-bubble 
into it, and notice that it floats in the gas much as a rubber 
balloon would float in water. It may be dipped and poured, 
run through troughs and pipes, or it may be siphoned like 
heavier liquids. Make a deep trough of pasteboard and 
place short, burning candles in the bottom. Pour the heavy 
gas into the trough, after elevating one end of it, and note 
that the lights are extinguished in order as it flows down 
over them. 

Call attention of the pupils to other forms of oxidation 
besides burning and breathing ; such as decay of animal and 
vegetable tissues, fermentation, and the oxidation of met- 
als, — iron, zinc, lead, copper. How Is the oxygen thus used 
up replaced In the air ? In connection with the experiments 
with carbon dioxide, discuss with the pupils " choke damp '' 
of mines, and the " damps " that are sometimes found in 



NON-LIVING THINGS 221 

wells and deep vats. How do people test wells for damps, 
and thus know whether it is safe to descend into them? 
How are such collections of the gas, carbon dioxide, re- 
moved ? 

Place a piece of lime the size of a walnut in a quart of 
water. Twenty-four hours later, pour off the clear water, 

taking care not to disturb the lime at the 
To Prepare bottom. The lime water thus simply pre- 

Lime Water ^ . . r n • 1 * 

pared is as good for all purposes as is that 

bought from druggists. 

Nitrogen can be separated from the other constituents 

of the air by burning a piece of phosphorus the size of a 

pea, instead of the candle, as in the first 
Nitrogen '^ ^, , i • 

experiment with air. The dense white gas 

formed is phosphoric oxide. It is rapidly absorbed by the 

water, leaving nearly pure nitrogen. Care should be used 

in handling the phosphorus, and the gas should not be 

allowed to escape into the room. 

Experiments in combustion may either precede or follow 

or be given with the study of air, as the subjects are closely 

interrelated. Substances which burn with 
Combustion , . , i 

a name are always those which, under cer- 
tain conditions, give off combustible vapors or gases ; those 
which glow by incandescence but from no flame are com- 
monly some form of more or less pure carbon, as charcoal, 
coke. The following experiments will serve to illustrate: 
In different glasses place a few drops of carbon-bisul- 
phide, gasoline, and alcohol. Cover the glasses for two or 
three minutes to allow the different liquids to vaporize and 
mix with air. Remove the cover and apply a red-hot wire 
to the mouth of the glass containing the carbon-bisulphide. 



222 METHODS IN TEACHING 

It flashes. Try in the same manner the other two sub- 
stances. If they fail to ignite in this way, try the flame of 
a burning taper, and they flash as did the carbon-bisulphide. 
Place about a teaspoonful of each of the substances in 
saucers or shallow dishes. By trial, show that each ignites 
easily and burns with, a flame. Extreme care should be 
used when handling such substances. Only small quanti- 
ties should be used at a time, and the rest should be kept 
in tightly closed vessels. Children should also be taught 
the extremely dangerous character of highly inflammable 
liquids such as these, and the reasons why they are so. 
Discuss with them the difference between these liquids, 
which are very volatile — that is, throwing off large quan- 
tities of inflammable vapors at ordinary temperatures — and 
those liquids which give off such vapors only when heated. 

Place a small quantity of kerosene in a saucer and try to 
light it by means of a match or taper. It refuses to burn. 
Now place a small quantity in a beaker and heat until it 
nearly boils. Try the taper in the air above the mouth of 
the beaker. It flashes about as gasoline flashes at ordinary 
temperatures, and continues to burn. Take hold of the 
two ends of a sheet of paper and bring it down quickly to 
the mouth of the beaker so as to exclude the air. The 
flame goes out. Why? Discuss the best means of extin- 
guishing burning clothing, oil, etc. 

Test various other fats and gums: first, by trying to set 
fire to them cold ; then by melting them and trying the 
melted form; and finally, by heating until the inflammable 
gases are given off, when they will flash readily. The fol- 
lowing can be tested easily by heating in an ordinary tin 
tablespoon : — butter, lard, tallow, paraffin, pitch, and resin. 



NON-LIVING THINGS 223 

Each is found to flash when heated to the point where it 
vaporizes freely. To show that the blaze from burning 
paper, wood, or coal is due to inflammable gases given off 
by heating, try the following: 

To show gas from paper, cut strips of foolscap or other 
heavy writing paper an inch and a half wide, and as long 
as possible up to eighteen inches. Roll into tapers, folding 
the larger end to prevent unrolling. Light the small end, 
and after the flame has traveled up the lighter three or four 
inches, note that there is still a flame at the small end, al- 
though the paper is evidently burned. Blow the lower 
flame out gently and observe that a dense gray " smoke " 
pours out in its place. Collect a quantity of this in a wide- 
mouthed bottle. Stop the bottle and set aside for a few 
minutes. While waiting for this, repeat the experiment by 
filling another bottle or a test-tube with the " smoke." 
While it is still hot apply the flame of the taper to it and 
note that it flashes somewhat as did the vapor of gasoline, 
leaving the bottle clear. Examine the bottle that was set 
aside. If suflicient time has elapsed the " smoke " should 
have entirely disappeared. Examine the sides of the bot- 
tle for a yellowish liquid, — creosote. Discuss the results 
with the pupils. Was what we called smoke really smoke 
or was it gas ? that is, an inflammable vapor ? Can this gas 
be burned after it is cool, or must it be heated to reach its 
flashing point? Repeat the experiment if necessary. 
After burning some of the gas from the bottle, test the air 
that remains for carbon dioxide. What is the result? 
Draw from the pupils the fact that the heat of the flame 
on the outside of the taper drives the gas off from the 
inner surface. Why does not this burn at the point where 



224 METHODS IN TEACHING 

it is formed inside the paper tube? What prevents the air 
from entering the tube? Why does not the flame travel 
through a gas pipe when we Hght the gas at the burner? 
Collect some ordinary illuminating gas by displacement in 
a wide-mouthed jar; a quart fruit jar will answer. Light 
the pure gas and note that it burns rather slowly from the 
top downward. Repeat, by filling the jar with about one 
fourth gas and three fourths air. Light with a long taper 
and note that the whole mixture flashes at once. In this 
connection discuss the blow-pipe, also the bunsen gas 
burner, and the common gas stove burners, which have 
devices for mixing the gas with air and thus developing 
great heat by securing more rapid combustion. 

Verify the taper experiments by placing a small quantity 
of torn paper in a baking-powder can (not soldered), and 
heating it over a gas or alcohol flame. When the gray 
vapor begins to rise in considerable quantity, test with 
lighter. Does it flash as before? What produces the 
flame, the solid paper or the gas that is driven off by the 
heat? Repeat the experiment, substituting small pieces of 
wood for the paper. Compare results with those of the 
previous experiment. What is left in the can after the 
vapor ceases to be given off ? Compare with common char- 
coal. Can this be burned? Will it produce a flame? 
Heat until incandescent, and catch some of the gas that is 
now given off by inverting a glass over it for a moment. 
Test the contents of the glass for carbon dioxide. The 
charcoal can be burned in shorter time if air is admitted 
by perforating the can near the bottom for this last experi- 
ment. 

The experiment can be made a little more striking by 



NON-LIVING THINGS 22$ 

using a section of thin gas pipe, properly capped and fitted 
with a delivery tube. Place some dry sawdust in the pipe 
and shake it down into the end to be heated. Heat over 
alcohol or gas flame until the vapor passes from the de- 
livery tube in a sufficient quantity to light. With the same 
apparatus use pulverized soft coal instead of sawdust. By 
heating the coal gas is generated, which may be burned 
similarly at the end of the deUvery tube. 

By use of this simple generator collect a small quantity 
of creosote by condensing the gas from paper or wood. 
Show the pupils that this liquid can be expanded again into 
gas by heat. Place a few drops of the liquid in the barrel 
of a bicycle pump, and heat over the alcohol lamp. The 
liquid expands again into the heavy, gray gas, and flashes 
into flame on being tested with a lighted taper. 

For experiments with a candle flame, a large candle is 
so much better than a small one that it pays to make it if 
it can not be secured otherwise. A mold 
Experiments j^j. ^j^jg purpose can be made by rollins: 

with the , ^. . . \ 

Candle Flame heavy writmg paper mto a tube about an 

inch and a quarter in diameter. The wick 
should be several times the size of common candle wicking. 
When this candle is lighted it does not catch as readily 
as the wick of a kerosene lamp. Why not? At first, the 
flame burns low, afterward it increases in size and bril- 
liancy. Why? Call attention to its shape, which is the 
result of molding by air currents. Tell the pupils that its 
color is due to particles of carbon (soot) made incandescent 
by heat. Hold a cold slip of glass in the flame for a mo- 
ment, and show the carbon that condenses upon its surface. 
Some of this carbon can be seen escaping unburned from 
i6 



226 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the flame, which is not hot enough to consume it all. Com- 
pare the flame in this respect with the flame of a kerosene 
lamp without the chimney. The effect of the chimney is to 
cause this carbon smoke to be completely consumed, thus 
making the flame larger and brighter. Is the flame of the 
lamp hotter with or without the chimney? Call attention 
to the dark area in the center of the candle flame. Thrust 
a toothpick through the base of the flame and hold it there 
until it begins to burn. Remove it quickly and blow out 
the flame. Note that it began to burn at the two places 
in contact with the outer surfaces of the flame, but that it 
did not burn in the middle of the flame. The flame is hol- 
low. Why? Because air does not get into the center and 
nothing can burn without oxygen. What is in this central 
portion that we have said was hollow? Take a piece of 
glass tubing about ten inches long, and, holding it at an 
angle of about 45°, thrust its lower end into the dark cen- 
ter of the flame. A gray gas, reminding us of the gas 
from the paper lighter, rises through the tube. Have some 
pupil light this at the upper end of the tube. Discuss its 
origin, and, if necessary, heat a small piece of tallow in a 
spoon until it vaporizes and takes fire? When pupils rec- 
ognize this gas as vaporized tallow, ask again why it does 
not burn in the center of the candle flame? To fix this 
point still further, thrust the head of a sulphur match into 
the dark center of the flame, and call attention to the fact 
that it does not at once take fire and burn, although it may 
blacken by heat. When removed, it immediately takes fire. 
Try again, this time only touching the head of the match 
to the outer surface of the flame, where the air reaches it. 
What is the result? 



NON-LIVING THINGS 22/ 

Blow out the candle, noting that much gray gas rises 
from the wick while it is still hot. Condense some of this 
by holding in it a piece of clean, cold glass. Let the pupils 
see that it is really tallow, which assumes its original form 
when condensed and cold. Relight the candle, and, when 
it burns brightly, extinguish the flame as before. Have a 
paper tube half an inch or more in diameter and six to ten 
inches long; hold it so that the gas flows upward through 
it. Light the gas at the upper end of the tube, and note 
that the flame travels quickly down to the wick, relighting 
the candle. 

The study of combustion can be extended indefinitely, 
according to the maturity of the pupils and the interest 
manifested. The work as here described has been found 
suited to our fifth and sixth grades, but much of it will 
bear repeating in grades as high as the eighth. It requires 
little in the way of apparatus that can not be made by the 
teacher and the pupils, and it results in an insight into many 
of the common things that none of us understand too well. 
With older pupils interest may be added to the work by dis- 
cussions on the manufacture of illuminating gas, gas and 
gasoline engines, and many other things connected directly 
with combustion. 

Teach pupils the relation of the moon to the earth, the 
relation of the earth and the moon to the sun, and the re- 
sultant phases of the moon. Teach also 
Sky Lessons 

the relation of the earth to other planets of 

the solar system, and the differences between planets and 
stars. The constellations may also be taken up simply by 
mapping them upon the blackboard and asking the pupils 



228 METHODS IN TEACHING 

to look for them at night. They should know, of course, 
whereabouts in the heavens to look for a given constella- 
tion at a certain hour. 

The apparent motion of the sun may be shown by mark- 
ing the position of shadows or spots of sunlight in the 
schoolroom at different times during the year. The shadow 
should be marked at about the same time, about twelve 
o'clock, every day that it is observed. If sunlight does not 
enter the room at that time, the class may be taken into the 
yard, and the shadow of any stationary object, as a post or 
a part of the building itself, may be used for the purpose. 
The length of the shadow should be noted, especially at or 
near the beginning of the different seasons. 

Permanently fasten the barometer described elsewhere to 

a board, and tack beside it a yard stick, so that variations 

in the height of the column of mercury can 
Local Climatic , -i >t . i i . , ,. , 

Studies ^ ^^^" easily. Note the height of the 

column in clear, cool weather, and use this 
as a standard for future observations. Call attention to 
any changes, until pupils form the habit of making use of 
the barometer in the study of climatic conditions. Dry, 
dense air is heavier than moist, expanded air. Therefore 
low barometer indicates storm conditions, and high barom- 
eter indicates fair weather. Study other local weather 
changes, the direction of winds and clouds when storms are 
approaching, and their direction in clearing weather which 
follows the storm. Local weather signs, if they are at all 
reliable, should be noted and discussed with a view to their 
better understanding. Daily weather records become very 
monotonous and are not to be recommended: but observa- 



NON-LIVING THINGS 229 

tions may be recorded once a week or oftener by the class, 

if results justify so doing. 

In the absence of an organized course in physiology for 

the several grades, based upon adopted texts, health lessons 

on such subjects as the following will meet 
Health , . t rr^. , • t 

Lessons ^ more serious needs : — The skm. Its 

structure, glands, and other organs, includ- 
ing perspiratory and sebaceous glands, organs of touch., 
temperature, and pain ; its appendages, — in man, hair and 
nails ; in other animals, feathers, claws, hoofs, horns, beaks, 
and spurs; its functions, including excretion, regulation of 
temperature, and protection of underlying organs, and its 
hygiene, including massage and bathing. In a similar way 
the muscles, teeth, digestive organs, nervous system, may 
be treated. 

Work under the head of alcohol and narcotics should be 
well considered and tactfully presented. Some knowledge 

of the nervous system is almost imperative 

, for the success of the work with older 

and 
Narcotics pupils, as it is upon this system that the 

profound effects of these things are pro- 
duced. The effect of the use of tobacco upon growing 
minds and bodies should be emphasized with young pupils. 
In general a stronger case is made against alcohol and 
other narcotics by emphasizing the moral rather than the 
physical effects ; but boys at the age when interest in athlet- 
ics begins to develop, are deeply impressed by the fact that 
these things are inimical to normal muscular development. 
Teachers should not forget that it is through curiosity 
purely that most boys begin to tamper with tobacco and 
alcoholic drinks. 



230 METHODS IN TEACHING 

In the space here available it is impossible to do more 
than suggest subjects and treatment. Such suggestions 
will not, of course, take the place of text- 
books in the various subjects from which 
work is taken, and which should form a part of every school 
library. 



CHAPTER XIIP 

GEOGRAPHY 

Geography has been defined as the study of the earth and 
man's relation to it, but that which holds the attention of 
the student is rather, as is claimed by Dr. Charles A. Mc- 
Murry, " the interaction between man and earth." The 
pupil should know more than the location of places and the 
boundaries of countries, he should also have some concep- 
tion of his own social relation to the various parts of the 
world. This requires that he must first gain a knowledge 
of his own country, its institutions, industries, products, 
physical features, climatic conditions, and its commercial 
relations with other countries, for the value of the knowl- 
edge itself and as an illustrative basis for the comprehen- 
sion of conditions in other parts of the world. The pupil 
gains this knowledge just in proportion as it arouses his 
interest and is grasped by his understanding. The normal 
child is blessed with curiosity; a keen desire to know; an 
intense interest in natural phenomena, in his neighbors, in 
industries, in commerce, in government. The satisfaction 
of this curiosity is the keynote to success in education. 
Only when the world is made unreal and foreign to the 
child does he lose touch with it. 

Geography may be divided into physical and social stud- 
ies. Under the former are grouped those conditions with 

*Much of the subject matter of this chapter has been furnished 
by Mr. S. H. Cohn of the Stockton schools. 

231 



232 METHODS IN TEACHING 

which nature has surrounded man, as the physiographic and 
mathematical features; under the latter belong the condi- 
tions with which man has surrounded him- 

Divisions of ir ^i x • • x 

g , self, as those pertammg to commerce, agri- 

culture, government. Development of civ- 
ilization is to a great extent dependent upon environments; 
but a child begins his study at the other end of the evolu- 
tion, with results instead of causes, with the realities around 
him that are the results of man's efforts, passing later to the 
natural conditions and laws that govern his surroundings, 
and that promote or retard his development. The newer 
teaching recognizes what the older treatment overlooked, 
that the study of geography must be based upon material 
within the experience of the child, for all knowledge is con- 
crete or it has a concrete standard of comparison. In order 
to secure this knowledge, to widen the child's mental hori- 
zon, to add to the sum of his experiences, to establish units 
of comparison, two ideas have come to take the lead in the 
methods of prominent teachers of geography, — the excur- 
sion and the establishment of a type form. That is, obser- 
vation and representation. 

Seeing is more than believing to the child; if it is the 
right kind of seeing, it is also knowing. In geography, the 
excursion is seeing, it is getting informa- 
Excursion ^^^" ^* ^^^* hand. Two thoughtful objec- 

tions are urged to the excursion, — ^the diffi- 
culty in maintaining discipline and the great amount of time 
needed. Does not true discipline, however, take cognizance 
of the real child, training him for his life work? The 
excursion tends to put the real child under the eyes of the 
teacher, an opportunity not lost by an observant, sympa- 



GEOGRAPHY 233 

thetic person. The time required for an excursion is cer- 
tainly an important consideration ; but does not the trouble 
in this respect usually lie in thinking of today only as time? 
If the knowledge gathered on the excursion is well seen, 
if it is so thoroughly learned that reviews and reproduc- 
tions are less necessary than with the information gained 
from a book or through the teacher, is not time really gained 
in the course of the year ? 

Aimless wandering is not a geographical excursion. The 
teacher should know where the class is to go and why ; the 
pupil should have some understanding of what he is to see 
and why. One teacher, before taking her class to the 
woolen mills, made three trips there herself, so that she 
might be familiar enough with it to direct attention profit- 
ably, and to answer intelligently any question that might 
be brought out by the pupils at the mill or in the class dis- 
cussion that followed the return to the schoolroom. A 
paper written by a pupil after this trip was pronounced by 
the superintendent of the mill correct in all respects except 
in the use of a few technical terms, a result worthy of the 
devotion of the teacher. Not only must the eye see but 
the mind must record scientifically and correctly what is 
seen. The excursion and the discussions that follow offer 
excellent opportunities for such training, which is just what 
is required in many branches of life. 

Our judgments are formed on certain established stand- 
ards or units. The more definite the standards, the more 

unerring the judgments. In geography. 
The Type , ., , r 

the pupil must have some means of convert- 
ing the ideas roused by reading about distant lands and 
foreign conditions into known quantities. To do this he 



234 METHODS IN TEACHING 

must be able to visualize, to typify. The local river, creek, 
slough, becomes his type for the study of other water 
courses; the distance from his home to some known place 
is his unit of measurement; the length of his play-time or 
his study period is his standard of time ; the hottest day or 
the coldest morning is a unit for climatic comparison. 
When the local types have been fixed, the imagination is 
brought into play in order to understand distant conditions. 
Pictures, books, stories, all aid in giving that larger view 
by which the young mind passes to new types. Thus, from 
the local stream, the type changes to the Mississippi, a 
standard for measuring all great rivers. In similar man- 
ner cities, countries, governments, and peoples become 
known, but the home type is the point of departure. 

FIRST AND SECOND YEAR GRADES 

The geographical work of these years is incidental and 
is usually associated with nature study; the teaching is 
objective, and it should always be within the limits of the 
child's observation and experience. Distance, location, 

direction, are the first three thoughts pre- 
Distance ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^j^^^^ ^j^^ ^. ^j^^j^ j^ ^^^ 

Direction -^ 

Location standard of measurement with these begin- 

ners, who are led to notice and remember 
how many blocks it is from home to the school, to the car 
line, to some public building. Cardinal points are learned 
in connection with objects outside the schoolroom; later, 
they are applied to the interior of the room and building. 
The child is led to observe in what direction a certain street 
car runs, where the sun rises and sets, how the shadows fall 



GEOGRAPHY 235 

at different times in the day. That is, his attention is called 
to the directions that are within his experiences. 

The children tell what some of the people whom they 
know are doing, thus beginning to study occupations. 

They talk about the public buildings of the 
Industries ^^^^' locating them by the cardinal direction 

from certain well known points, and men- 
tioning in terms intelligible to the child some of their uses ; 
it is a foundation for later studies in government. The 
ways of going around the city are discussed, in order to 
understand the needs and the kinds of transportation. The 
m.ost noted industries or manufactures of the city are men- 
tioned and located if possible. Some of the most common 
fruits and vegetables are talked about, the children finding 
out where they come from and if any are shipped away. 

Stories of children in other lands begin the pupil's ac- 
quaintance with foreign countries, they are the first steps 

in the geography of the world. This 
Child Life knowledge may be only of names, correctly 

pronounced and spelled; of simple facts 
about countries, as that Switzerland is a land of lakes and 
mountains, as shown in " William Tell " ; or that Holland 
has dykes to keep out the sea, as the islands below Stockton 
have levees to keep out the San Joaquin river. Whatever 
the facts, if they are learned correctly and are well fixed in 
the memory, they are supplementary geographical knowl- 
edge. In the second grade, the globe and the wall maps 
are used freely with the stories, thus familiarizing the chil- 
dren with the representation of the world as a whole, with 
the shapes of the continents and oceans, and leading many 
of the brighter minds to locate the places talked about. 



236 METHODS IN TEACHING 

The blackboard and the sand trough are used freely in 
developing the work of these grades both by the teacher 

and the pupils. By drawing and modeling 
^ , the teacher presents thoughts more clearly 

and forcibly; by the same means the child 
expresses his comprehension of a subject, and visualizes for 
himself that about which he is studying. 

THIRD YEAR GRADE 

With the mile as an understood unit of measurement, in 
this grade many distances around the city are made intel- 
ligible to the pupils. Distance is also meas- 
Home City ^^^d in time, a ten minute walk, bicycle 

ride, trip on the railroad, on the street car. 
The principal work of the grade is to give the pupils a 
definite idea of the size and plan of the city, which is laid 
out as a rectangle, and of the location of the principal build- 
ings, especially those belonging to the city. The printed 
maps of the city furnished the schools are used by the chil- 
dren for indicating parks, buildings, factories, hotels, 
schools, depots. In connection with the map work, the 
pupils learn direction as represented in drawing. In addi- 
tion to the details of the city within its boundaries, the 
features of the country around the city are studied: the 
great plain in which Stockton is located; the mountain 
ranges in the distance ; the rivers and other waterways ; the 
nature of the soil. On maps of the city, drawn or modeled, 
or on the wall map, the children locate the streets, parks, 
and other points of interest, telling in what direction they 
would go if passing from one point to another. 

Stories of child life are an important feature in the read- 



GEOGRAPHY 237 

ing for the year, and care is taken that some of them shall 

be of a nature to arouse the interest of the 

r^^^^^T ° a children in the world as well as in its people. 

Other Lands ^ ^ 

Conditions in many countries thus begin to 
impress themselves upon the minds of the pupils. The 
globe and the wall maps are used in these stories, although 
no fixed amount of knowledge can be required. If the 
information is given accurately, if the locations are clearly 
pointed out, and if the children frequently hunt out places 
and countries for themselves, the results are almost sure to 
be satisfactory in regard to the amount of geographical 
information obtained. 

FOURTH YEAR GRADE 

Units of measurement of distance and time are developed 
through a comprehension of one mile, five, ten, a hundred 
miles; an hour, a day, a week, a month, a 
«,. year. Pupils try to realize long distances 

by translating them into the time occupied 
in covering them by various modes of travel. This corre- 
lates well with number work, the children solving some 
really difficult problems for their grade through interest in 
the thought and a real understanding of what they are try- 
ing to do. 

From six to seven months of the year are given to home 
geography. An elementary text-book is used, and the al- 
lotted time is ample for collateral reading 
Geocraphv ^^^ ^^^ making experiments to illustrate 

some of the phenomena described. It is 
easy to show the children the carrying power of rivers in 
transporting soil; the way in which hills are washed down 



238 METHODS IN TEACHING 

by rain and other actions of water; the effect of lateral 
pressure on the crust of the earth is easily presented by 
putting differently colored soils with layers of salt or some 
other white substance between them on a large blotting pad 
slightly raised in the center. Apply lateral pressure gently 
until the uppermost fold breaks. 

Several careful experiments are made so that the chil- 
dren may understand the action of air. This is very inter- 
esting to the pupils and is preparatory to 
^ Aij. the study of climate in later grades. For 

one of these experiments a short section of 
gas pipe is filled with water, the caps are screwed on se- 
curely, and the pipe is placed in a bucket and surrounded 
with a mixture of salt and ice. The children watch the 
formations that appear on the outside of the pipe, — dew, 
frost, and ice, where a few drops of water have been placed 
on the outside. After a while the pipe bursts by the ex- 
pansion of the water as it turns to ice, A thermometer 
placed in the bucket adds to the interest in the experiment. 
Valleys are treated in connection with rivers, several 
weeks being devoted to the related subjects. Sandbars 

formed in a river, channel, or creek are 
Vflpllcvs 
and Rivers good examples of the work of a river. 

Several land and water forms are learned 
through the study of ponds and lakes. These are distin- 
guished, named, and drawn by the pupil, who is led to form 
his own definitions. As new places are mentioned they 
are looked up on the map in the text-book, then on the 
wall map, if possible on the globe as well. The habit of 
locating a new place is to be classed with looking up a new 
word. 



GEOGRAPHY 239 

In connection with the work on the home city industries 
and commerce are studied. The government is considered 
briefly, in terms comprehensible to the chil- 
Commercial dren, correlating it with civics and the ordi- 

j - . . nances of the city government that are ap- 

Life plicable to the lives of the children. Maps 

are drawn of places studied, not as perfect 
reproductions nor as examples of painstakng efforts, but in 
order to fix general proportions in the minds of the children. 

The topics connected with the commercial and industrial 
life of the city are more than geography. They correlate 
so closely with local history that on many occasions there 
is no attempt to differentiate between these two subjects. 
Leading articles of export, as flour, combined harvesters, 
leather, woollen goods, fruits, are made the bases of class 
talks. During the year excursions to some local industries 
are made, the teacher visiting the factory first in order to 
become familiar with the processes, all or part of the class 
going later with the teacher. It is not necessary that all 
fourth grades should visit the same industry; the follow- 
ing are those inspected by some class during the year: the 
flour mills, glass works, woollen mills, briquette factory, 
cannery, harvester works, iron works, ship yards, planing 
mills, macaroni factory. 

The order of the study is to procure any samples possible 
and usable in the schoolroom, to locate the works, study 
the raw material, observe the process of manufacture, study 
the product and its uses, review the excursion by means 
of photographs, write it up. 

The county is studied, beginning with near-by districts 
and any portions of the county known to any of the pupils. 



240 METHODS IN TEACHING 

The topics taken up are, — surface and drainage, position 
and boundaries, industries, products, roads, lines of trans- 
portation, rivers, towns. A study is made 

County ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ "^^P ^^ ^^^ county, furnished 

every fourth grade. The county is drawn 
again and again until the children can reproduce it easily 
and accurately from memory. After the outline is firmly 
fixed in the mind, the principal towns are located and their 
leading industries are discussed. It is shown that Stockton 
is a distributing center, and that its intercourse is great 
with all parts of the county. 

As a preparation for talks on the products of the county, 
the various kinds of soil are discussed, not in scientific lec- 
. tures, but in the curiosity-satisfying, obser- 

vation-loving methods, delightful and in- 
spiring to the minds of children. The peat land of the 
islands, the adobe in and around Stockton, the alluvial bot- 
tom lands of the rivers, are treated briefly. A map on the 
board, locating these lands in colors, makes the work very 
giaphic. Products grown upon the dififerent soils are dis- 
cussed; the teacher talks of the irrigation and reclamation 
near the city. On all these points the children are either 
already informed or they hunt up a great many interesting 
points to contribute to the class. 

The children make a long list of local products, — fruits, 
vegetables, grains, animals, dairy products. In these stud- 
ies it is usual to procure such specimens as 
Products ^^ seems desirous to have in the school- 

room ; to find out in what part of the 
county each is grown ; to study a little about the life of the 
specimen on its home ranch; to collect samples indicating 



GEOGRAPHY 24 1 

the nature of the growth, or to make illustrative drawings 
for the same purpose ; to study the manner of handling the 
product, including the mode of gathering, packing, and the 
means of transportation ; to follow the product to its point 
of sale, speaking briefly of the city merchant and his store. 
Written work, incorporating the results of these investiga- 
tions, completes the study of any one product. 

The dependence of occupations and industries upon one 
another and upon productions is easily shown; it forms an 
interesting feature of this part of the study, and partakes 
of the nature of geography, history, and civics. The in- 
dustries growing out of any production are called to the 
attention of the children by such questions as the following 
about wheat raising: Why are there several flouring mills 
here ? How is the wheat taken from the ranch to the mill ? 
Where is the flour shipped to? By what means of trans- 
portation? In the shipments to China is there any reload- 
ing of the flour after leaving Stockton? How many occu- 
pations can be named that grow out of wheat raising in 
San Joaquin county? 

Stories of children in other lands are continued in this 
year, forming one of the most interesting features of the 
course. There are always discussions on 
Children ^^^ 1^^^^^ ^f ^^^ ^^^^i^ about whom the story 

of other . . , . . , , i i • j 

L^jj^g IS written; where it is located; what kind 

of a country this is; how it differs from 
our own ; personal appearance of the people ; clothing ; food ; 
animals, and the uses to which they are put; occupations. 
There is an immense fund of delightful information to be 
gained in this way, over which children never tire. Map 
and globe researches are its constant accompaniment, favor- 
17 



242 METHODS IN TEACHING 

ing the acquisition of a great deal of accurate geographical 
knowledge. Much assistance is given by locating on the 
globe the world belt in which our home is found ; this may 
be transferred to the wall map most frequently in use, thus 
furnishing the pupils with a quick and sure means of locat- 
ing places north and south of the home zone, and establish- 
ing a means of comparison with places that are not in the 
same latitude. Pictures are used freely, and all illustrative 
material, such as articles of dress, utensils, products, all of 
which help to picture life in foreign countries. 

Maps are drawn of the home city and county. The land 
and water forms are studied; sometimes illustrated by the 

puddles in the school yard after a rain 
Representation . . , . . ^ 

storm, sometimes seen m objective form by 

trips to the harbor and river. Plans are drawn to scale, 
showing a surface as a bird would see it from above. Ideas 
of area and scale are developed. This work is closely con- 
nected with arithmetic and drawing. 

The following extracts are from a teacher's account of 
her work:^ 

One of the first duties of the teacher is to lead the child 
to observe everything in nature around him, — the air, the 

water, the sky, the temperature, the clouds ; 

animals, planets, rocks, hills, valleys, soil, 
streams, the habitations and the occupations of men. He 
should also learn the necessary terms with which to express 
the ideas gained by his observations. This is important 
preparatory work in geography, from which, in addition to 
knowledge, the child gains the power of accurate observa- 
tion, inference, and expression; also the ability to make 
*Miss Maud Southworth. 



GEOGRAPHY 243 

clear his thoughts by drawing, modeHng, painting, and con- 
structing. 

The work of the year includes oral lessons on distance, 
location, and direction. The use of the compass is investi- 
gated. The North Star is located. A 
The Year weather record is kept during the winter 

months when the weather is changeable. A 
plan is drawn of the schoolroom, the school block, the home 
block. A map of the city is then drawn. 

A topic, as rivers, is placed on the board, with such ques- 
tions as the following: — What is a river? Name one near 

Stockton. Where is its source? Many 
Topical , . , , , , , , 

Treatment other smiple questions are asked to lead the 

children to consider a river from its source 
to its mouth, some of the work it performs in carrying soil 
and other ways, and the change in the country through which 
it flows from the hills or mountains to the sea. Many of 
these questions must be subdivided into new topics. Some 
pupils have seen the source of a river in the mountains; 
others have seen the mouth of the San Joaquin or the 
Sacramento river ; all know about the overflow lands. So all 
the thoughts suggested by the above questions can be de- 
veloped intelligently and concretely with the whole class. 
After the oral work is completed the children write up a 
story on the subject. Other topics, as mountains, valleys, 
lakes, soil, air, moisture, are treated in a similar manner. 

After drawing a plan of our city Stockton is taken up 
according to the same method. Such topical questions are 

e^iven as : — How is Stockton governed ? 
Home City 

Who makes the laws ? Who are the princi- 
pal city officials? What are the railroads, the street car 



244 METHODS IN TEACHING 

lines ? What are the leading industries ? Is the land in and 
around Stockton level or hilly? What are the nearest 
mountains? the rivers? After the children are thoroughly 
familiar with the topics by means of the oral treatment, out- 
lines are made, and many are written up. In all our 
geography work as many pictures as can be found and used 
profitably are brought in by the children or are provided by 
the teacher. 

During the past year, while studying about the local indus- 
tries, the class visited one of the creameries. The day before 

the visit we talked of the things that we 
Creamerv expected to see ; of the number of creameries 

in Stockton; where they were located; how 
they got their milk and cream. We spoke of the skimming 
stations, and agreed to find out how many there are in the 
county and of what use they are to the farmers ; also to find 
out about the means of transporting milk and cream. The 
following outline was then worked out with the class as a 
guide for the excursion and later for the paper on the sub- 
ject. 

Creameries. 
Number. 
Location. 
Skimming stations. 

Location. 
Handling the milk — weighing. 
— straining. 
— separating. 
Churning the cream. 



GEOGRAPHY 245 

Handling the butter — working. 
— moulding. 
— packing for sale. 
— shipping. 
Centers for sale of butter. 
Near home. 
Shipping by rail or water. 

The children copied this outline and carried it with them 
the next day. They were told to ask questions and to find 
out all that they could about everything that they saw. After 
careful inspection of the creamery, we returned to school 
and talked over what we had seen and heard. Paper was 
then passed to the pupils, and, from their outlines, they 
wrote an account of the excursion. For drawing that day 
an outline was made of Stockton, locating in reference to the 
city the principal dairy farms of the county as we had 
learned about them that morning at the creamery. 

The class took up the flour mills of Stockton in the same 
way, but only two of the pupils visited them. These two re- 
ported to the class the day after their trip, outlines were then 
made, and the stories were written. Other local industries 
are taken up in one or the other of these ways, but not all are 
reproduced in writing. 

The study of the state follows that of the city and county. 
In history California is studied with reference to the Indians, 
the mission fathers, the discovery of gold, 
Home State ^"^ ^^^ admission into the Union as a state. 

In this work the children draw maps show- 
ing California as it looked when the Indians were here; as 
the mission fathers knew it, locating the twenty-one mis- 



246 METHODS IN TEACHING 

sions ; and as it is represented on the maps today. The chil- 
dren find interesting work in the discovery of gold and the 
different ways of mining still practiced in the state, especially 
in the Mother Lode region in the Sierra Nevada mountains. 

Twenty minutes a day are given to geography. The work 
is mainly oral with, perhaps, two written lessons a month. 

The following paper was written by one of Miss South- 
worth's pupils after the excursion to the creamery. There 
are no corrections in any manner whatever. 

" We went three blocks and a half to the creamery. 

" The creamery is on the corner of Center Street and 
Miner Avenue. 

" The owners of the creamery are Mr. Cy. Moreing, Mr. 
W. A. Hildreth, and the estate of Mr. W. F. Jordan. 

" It is leased by Mr. F. H. Armsburger, its manager. 

" When the milk comes from the farms they put it in large 
cans. Then they put them in country wagons and send the 
milk to the skimming stations which are scattered all over 
the country. There is one in Elks Grove, in Sacramento 
County, has twenty patrons ; another in Lodi, in our country 
which is San Joaquin County, has twenty patrons; another 
in Bellota, in San Joaquin County, has twenty patrons and 
two private skimming stations; another at Holt, in San 
Joaquin County, is private; another in Lathrop, in San 
Joaquin County, is owned by patrons; and another in 
Modesto, in Stanislaus County, is owned by patrons. 

" They have a machine called a separator in the skimming 
stations. It has two pipes, one for the cream and the other 
for the milk to run out. The milk is the heaviest so it stays 
at the bottom and the cream goes to the top. 

" They have a kind of tube they put a little of the milk in 



GEOGRAPHY 



247 



and some liquid with it to tell how much the milk is worth. 

" The purpose of this is to give the men the money that 
they ought to get. The men that have poor milk don't get 
much as the men that have rich milk. 

" They take the skimmed milk off and give it to the calves. 
When the calves have too much the men give it to the pigs. 

" They put the cream on trains and send it to Stockton. 
When it arrives the wholesale milk wagon comes and gets it 
and takes it to the creamery. The cream is carried about 
forty miles to Stockton. 

*' The churn is wooden outside and tin inside. It is shaped 
like a cylinder. When the dasher is running the rollers 
aren't, and when the rollers are running the dasher isn't. It 
is large enough to hold fifteen hundred pounds of butter at 
once. It runs by steam power. It takes one and a half 
hours to make the butter. They have a man from the 
country come and get the buttermilk for his pigs. 

" They wash and wash the butter in the churn. They put 
water in the churn and run it through the butter. After the 
butter is washed they let the water out. The rollers keep 
turning the salt into the butter while they go around. Then 
they take it out of the churn and put it in a kind of trough. 
They have four wires on and they push a stick fastened to 
the wires and cut the butter in cube shape. There are two 
pounds in each package. Then they take it out of the trough 
with a kind of paddle. After it is hard they wrap it up in 
paper which has their name on, ' The San Joaquin Cream- 
ery.' They sell the butter to the grocers and dealers. 
When they send it to them they put it in boxes. They sell it 
to the skimming stations patrons, too. When the man at 



248 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the creamery pays the patrons he takes so much off for his 
work." 

FIFTH YEAR GRADE 

The two principal topics for this year are the earth as a 
whole and Stockton and San Joaquin county. The earth as 

a whole means that world units besrin to take 
Course • 

the place of local units. History helps de- 
velop an idea of the size of the world and of the location of 
other lands than our own. No detailed work is done, the 
desire being to grasp the larger ideas of the world first. The 
topic includes elementary geography and many studies on 
food products, especially those that find their way to our own 
tables near and far. The home geography of the year is 

confined to two or three weeks. Mathe- 
The Earth 

matical and physical phases of geography^ 

in forms that are intelligible to the children, are given at the 

beginning of the year. Every device imaginable to the 

teacher is used to give the pupils a clear concept of the form, 

size, daily motion, and zone division of the earth. 

The various geographical sections of the United States 

are studied from an elementary text book, comparing con- 

. , stantly with our own section. Each division 

United States . . ^ , 

IS given a few days or a week or two as 

needed. The geographical study is followed by an examina- 
tion of products, interest being sustained by outside reading 
and by comparisons with the products of the home county 
and state. For instance, how have the supplies of coal, iron, 
and oil benefited the New England states? Have we in 
Stockton been benefited by the opening of the Tesla coal 
mines ? The price of coal in the East is compared with the 



GEOGRAPHY 249 

price here. The child is led to see that there are reasons for 
cities being located in certain places, and for their growth. 
In discussing the Erie Canal, the conversation is turned upon 
the fact that Stockton owes its location and growth to its 
waterways. 

Agricultural conditions in the Southern states are dis- 
cussed, and two of their staples, cotton and tobacco, are 
grown in window gardens and yards. The Central states 
are taken up in the same v/ay. Great cities, as Boston, New 
York, Chicago, New Orleans, are studied and imaginary 
visits are made to them. A week may be taken looking up 
information, about any one of the above named cities by some 
individual pupil or by the whole class. Then a letter is 
written, purporting to be from the city studied, describing 
conditions, and perhaps bringing in notable buildings and 
other objects of interest. It is often an incentive for the 
class if the teacher writes the first letter ; interest is awakened 
and a model is given to the pupils. Such a letter may be 
read without giving the name of the place, the class deciding 
what section is described. In the Western States three ideas 
stand out prominently, the mountains and their mineral 
wealth, the Great Basin, and the fruitful regions on the 
Pacific slope. There are so many points of comparison, so 
many interesting features of knowledge in all this work that 
the pupils rarely tire of it. It can be so conducted that it is 
almost a record of travel to them. It should be. Geography 
is wonderfully interesting, but many people have to travel 
before they find it out; the children should learn it in the 
schoolroom. 

The work on South America is brief and should not be 
intensive. Aside from Brazil, which receives individual 



250 METHODS IN TEACHING 

treatment, it is taken up in sections. In studying Europe, a 

comparison of conditions and productions, already a little 

known to the pupils through the stories of 

South America children of other lands, is the method of 
Europe 

Asia Africa approach. The dykes of Holland are com- 
pared with the levees along the San Joaquin 
river; the mountains of Switzerland with the mountains of 
California; the coal and iron of England with that of the 
Middle Atlantic states. Where comparisons are not easily 
drawn, the stories of other lands may be taken as points of 
departure or as centers of interest. In studying Asia, China 
and Japan are the two countries to be emphasized, especially 
for the growing commercial relations between them and the 
United States. The attention of the pupils is called to the 
marked contrast between the two countries. Africa is 
studied very briefly, for this continent touches but lightly 
the interests and knowledge of the children of this age. 

The home geography for the year is an extension of that 
for the preceding grade. The city is studied with reference 
to its location and advantages. Why is 
Geoerauhv Stockton a commercial city? Of what ad- 

vantage is transportation of freight by 
water? What railroads pass through the city? What ones 
terminate here? In what way do they benefit Stockton? 
The manufactures are reviewed; the sources, uses, advan- 
tages of the various kinds of power available for manufactur- 
ing purposes here are talked over, always remembering the 
limitations of a child's interest and comprehension. The 
lighting of the city is discussed, as are also the drainage sys- 
tem and the means of disposing of the sewage. Stockton 



GEOGRAPHY 251 

in relation to the county, to the great central valley, to the 
state, are subjects for thought and discussion. 

In this and succeeding grades the natural interdependence 
of geography with other subjects, especially history, must be 

borne in mind constantly by the teacher. 
of Work Pupils should be trained to consult the globe, 

atlas, wall maps, gazetteer, encyclopaedia, 
when any unfamiliar geographical reference is met with in 
any work. They should be trained thoroughly in the use of 
all labor saving aids, as the table of contents, the index, the 
key to pronunciation. Frequent short exercises in map 
drawing should be given, beginning with copying either a 
state or a section of the United States, and repeating the 
map until a recognition of proportion and a facility in execu- 
tion have been gained. This drawing is for general charac- 
teristics of a country, not for detail, and memory maps be- 
come a feature of the exercise. Blackboard work permits 
of freedom of movement by the pupil and ease of inspection 
by the teacher. Only such places are located as have some 
connection with the child's work, no matter what may be 
given on the printed map. Sections of the country are 
drawn rather than individual states, although for variety a 
section is sometimes built up by drawing the individual states. 

SIXTH YEAR GRADE 

The work for the year centers on North America, under 
the following topics : — California, the home state ; a general 

study of North America ; more detailed 
America study of the United States, the principal 

topic for the year; somewhat detailed study 
on the remaining countries of North America. The leading 



252 METHODS IN TEACHING 

thought of the grade is to give the pupil an appreciation of 
his own country. His own state, which is his unit of com- 
parison, should now be well known geographically, industri- 
ally, and commercially; and a map of the state should be 
drawn readily from memory, with the principal rivers, 
mountain ranges, and cities located correctly. 

As the development of certain industries in some localities 
and not in others depends upon physiographic and climatic 
conditions, the pupils should have a clear understanding of 
the broad principles that underlie existing conditions in any 
section of the country that is being studied. Whenever a 
new section of the United States is taken up it is well to re- 
call the general laws and see how the particular section 
under discussion is affected by them. The simpler treat- 
ment of these subjects in earlier years is the basis for the 
work in every grade. The habits and habitats of animals 
and plants found in different sections provide material for 
short talks and papers. 

The general geographical divisions for the study of the 
United States are, as in the fifth grade, the different sections 
of the country, but the work is more inten- 
States ^^^^* Some of the principal topics are : — 

New England, its forests, building stone, 
fishing, manufacturing, and early historical importance; 
Middle Atlantic states, agriculture, mining, manufacture of 
articles from mineral products, growth of New York city; 
Southern States, industrial awakening since the war, mining, 
manufacturing, growth and nature of New Orleans, includ- 
ing its sanitary problems, its cosmopolitan population, its 
streets ; the great region of the Central states, the store house 
of so much of the nation's wealth, both materially and in 



GEOGRAPHY 253 

the physical and intellectual power that have been influential 
in the progress of this country. The important points of 
study concerning the Central states are settlement, agricul- 
ture, mineral products, the lake cities, the river cities, Chi- 
cago. The great variance in physiography and climatic con- 
ditions in the different sections of the Western states requires 
that they be treated separately. The Great Basin of Utah 
and Nevada is different in every way from the productive 
Pacific slope. The points to be emphasized are physiography 
and climate, agriculture, irrigation, mining, scenery, and San 
Francisco, a typical Pacific coast city. A short time is spent 
on the territories and dependencies of the United States, — 
Alaska, Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaiian Islands, Philippines. 

The study of British American possessions gives oppor- 
tunity for reviewing adjoining sections of the United States 

because of the similarity in conditions, in- 
Countries dustries and products along the boundaries. 

The points to be established are differences 
in people and government, lumbering, fishing, rapid develop- 
ment of the Northwest, transference of people, immigra- 
tion of farmers from the United States into the Northwest, 
and settlements of Canadians in our own country. Mexico 
is the basis of the study of the countries to the south, and for 
a comparison with our own social, physical, and industrial 
conditions. The intermixing of races has brought about a 
social and an industrial deterioration. The laboring classes 
among the present inhabitants are ordinarily ignorant and 
indolent, adhering to the crude methods of life practiced by 
their ancestors. The great mineral wealth and the rich agri- 
cultural opportunities have caused an influx of Americans 
into Mexico and Central America, attracted by the chances 



254 METHODS IN TEACHING 

for accumulating wealth. In Central America the instability 
of the government and the growing of coffee are the princi- 
pal topics considered. 

Many maps are drawn throughout the year. Progressive 
map drawing is valuable in fixing outlines and in giving an 

idea of a pupil's e^rasp on a subject. The 
Map Drawing a - . a ir 

followmg order is suggested : — outlme map ; 

physical map; rainfall map; isothermal map; produce. 

mining, or manufacturing map, according to the industrial 

nature of the section; political map, which may be colored. 

The following paper was written by a sixth grade boy in 

connection with the geographical study of industries. No 

alterations whatever have been made in it. 

THE RECLAIMED LANDS 

A delta is a triangular alluvial deposit formed at the mouth 
of certain rivers. 

The most interesting land of San Joaquin county is the 
tule land which extends from Stockton north to New Hope 
south to Tracy and Banta and west to the boundary of the 
county. This tule land covers as much as two hundred and 
fifty thousand acres. It was formed by the constant rushing 
of the water from the Sierra Nevada Mountains carrying 
the decayed vegetation and depositing it forming the San 
Joaquin delta. 

This rich land is intersected by many navagable rivers 
which are the San Joaquin, Old, Middle, North Fork, South 
Fork, Calaveras, and Mokelumne Rivers. These rivers 
running along form many Islands which are Roberts, Union, 
Bouldin, and Rough and Ready islands. These islands were 
once covered with water furnishing irrigation for a small 



GEOGRAPHY 255 

reed or tule which is about as large as your finger and grows 
to the height of twelve or fifteen feet. 

The sediment or alluvium which was brought down by the 
rivers settled to the roots of these tules forming a very im- 
portant peat land. 

As this soil in the tule lands is peat it is the richest and 
most productive soil in the world. When this peat land is 
reclaimed a dredger is taken to throw levees up around the 
different claims leaving the water inside these levees. After 
the levees are thrown up men set fire to the tules and burn 
them. If they pumped the water off this land before burn- 
ing the tules this peat or tule roots would catch fire burning 
a great deal of land. 

When the tules are burned pumps are used to pump the 
water from in these levees. Then a ditcher is brought down 
which cuts a straight irrigation ditch through the different 
claims. After this work is through with the cultivating 
begins. The men plough this rich soil then they plant sui- 
table vegetables to the soil. Some of these vegetables are 
onions, potatoes, beans, asparagus, and grains. When one 
crop is raised of one product there is a different product 
planted so as not to tire the soil. 

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE 

The work of the seventh year includes the following 

topics : — about nine weeks on physical and general geog- 
raphy ; four or five weeks on South Amer- 

g, , ica ; from eight to ten weeks on Europe ; five 

or six weeks on Asia ; two to four weeks on 

Africa; three to four weeks on Australia and the Pacific 

islands. 



256 METHODS IN TEACHING 

To give pupils a knowledge of geography sufficient for 
the needs of a lifetime is manifestly impossible and is not 
attempted. The work in the seventh grade practically com- 
pletes the subject as presented in the grades. The aims 
should be to develop interest in this science, which in its 
entirety includes all natural sciences; to give the pupils a 
definite plan or method for the acquisition of geographical 
knowledge and for systematizing that which has already 
been gained; to lay foundations for future knowledge and 
studies by investigating some of the causes for present con- 
ditions of the earth and among its inhabitants. 

The teacher must be satisfied to impress upon the mind of 
the pupil the larger facts which are strongly characteristic 
of countries and peoples. The attempt to hold pupils re- 
sponsible for details of minor importance often renders first 
causes obscure and colorless. For example : England mines, 
manufactures, and engages in commerce. Why? She 
mines because her territory contains coal, iron, and other 
valuable minerals that are always in demand. She manu- 
factures because the intelligence and inventive genius of her 
people enable her to put her cheap fuel and valuable mineral 
resources to the best possible use. She engages in commerce 
because she must import food supplies and raw materials as 
well as find markets for her manufactures. Such facts are 
elementary in their relation to English life and to much of 
her government policy ; they should stand out even in the 
mind of the grammar grade pupil. Details are added for 
interest and clearer understanding, but they should never be 
allowed to befog that which is essential. 

By the time children have reached the seventh grade they 
can hold some clear ideas on the relation of the sun to the 



GEOGRAPHY 257 

earth and to the other planets. They should distinguish 
such terms as sun, planet, star, satellite, and be able to 
demonstrate by diagram and globes the motions of the earth 
which give us day and night, and the seasons. They 
should also understand the interrelations of the earth, the 
moon, and the sun, which give the phases of the moon. 

Comparison of the sun, moon, earth, and other planets 
is always interesting to pupils if given in a manner that is 
readily understood. Many questions will suggest them- 
selves to teachers for arousing interest and developing defi- 
nite concepts, as : If the earth is represented by a globe three 
feet in diameter, what will be the diameter of a proportional 
globe to represent the sun? the moon? Jupiter? If the 
globe representing the earth were placed in a certain posi- 
tion, how far away would the other globes have to be 
placed to maintain proportions as to distance? If the earth 
were represented by a globe two blocks in diameter, how 
high would Mount Shasta appear on its surface? How 
high above the surface would clouds float if proportional 
distances were maintained? 

The views of modern scientists regarding the condition of 
the interior of the earth can be noted and discussed, and the 
principal physical changes that are constantly in progress 
on the surface of the earth should be considered as fully as 
time will permit. 

Pupils of this age are able to comprehend many of the 
factors which make up climate and to determine the distri- 
bution of animal and vegetable life. Thermal zones, winds, 
ocean currents, and the causes and distribution of rainfall 
all prove profitable subjects in this grade. 

In connection with the study of races, some attention is 
i8 



258 METHODS IN TEACHING 

given to the development of industries, religions, and 
governments, all of which indicate the degree of civiliza- 
tion attained. 

The following thoughts are selected from a teacher's 
method sheet^ : 

Before treating the methods employed in the seventh 
grade it is advisable to reconsider the knowledge already 
possessed by the child. In the fifth year the pupil becomes 
acquainted with the simpler physiographic forces, such as 
air, water, heat within the earth. He learns the result of 
the rotation of the earth and becomes familiar with the loca- 
tion of the zones. He learns in a large way about his 
country, the continent as a whole, the United States, the 
countries to the north and to the south. A similar view but 
with less of detail is given of the other countries of the 
world. In the sixth year there is a deeper insight into the 
physiographic forces. The continent of North America, 
especially the United States, receive more intensive treat- 
ment. On this foundation is built the work of the seventh 
grade. 

The methods employed are treated under the following 
heads : — physical forces, physiography, industrial conditions, 
social conditions, maps and map drawing. 

By the use of a globe and a baseball the revolution of 
the earth is shown. The earth's rotation and the phe- 
nomena of day and night are explained by 
Phvsiciil 
Forces shutting out the daylight and using a candle 

and the globe. A series of experiments is 
conducted to show the circulation of air and water in an 

*Mr. S. H. Cohn, principal of a grammar school and teacher of 
the seventh grade. 



GEOGRAPHY 259 

endeavor to simplify air and water currents. Diagrams and 

maps are drawn to emphasize and clarify the understanding 

of these points in reference to the world. Whenever a new 

section is studied the influence of the various air and water 

currents upon it are discussed. 

The physiographic and climatic conditions are the basis 

for the study of productions, which in their turn give the 

key to the industrial conditions in any 
Industrial ^ , t 1 • i 

Conditions country. For example :— the physiography 

of the Andean section of South America 
suggests mining as a leading industry; the climate and 
physiographic features of the La Plata country recall the 
prairies of the United States, explaining the similarity of 
products in these two regions. Occupations and commercial 
progress grow naturally out of the industries; these form 
the basis for the study of the development of the people. 
The rise and decline of a nation belong to the realm of 
history, but the geographical environment must be known 

in order to have a correct understanding of 
Conditions ^^^ conditions that make for its progress or 

decline. In the study of Switzerland, the 

social conditions and development are brought strongly into 

connection with the physical characteristics. 

In the study of a continent or a section of a continent 

the development is brought out clearly by a 
Maps 

series of maps. Skill is obtained by many 

short exercises ; first, in copying, later, in drawing from 

memory. 

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE 

A final study of the subject of geography is given during 
the last two or three months of the eighth grade. The pupil 



26o METHODS IN TEACHING 

now possesses a knowledge of his country's history, and his 
powers of observation are sufficiently mature to make of 

this final work more than a mere review. 
ComDleted ^^ becomes a study of cause and effect, 

in which results are attained that could not 
have been thought of in the lower grades. The study of the 
continent is now preceded by a discussion of the historical 
events that led to its discovery, settlement, development, and 
division into the countries of today. The physical and 
political geography is reviewed, stress being laid upon those 
features that constitute important causes in the development 
of the country; such as, navigable rivers, harbors, mineral 
deposits, agricultural possibilities, climate. 

Physical and political maps of our country are carefully 
drawn, so that the pupil's knowledge shall be very exact of 
the location and boundaries of states, location of cities in 
reference to navigable waters and to railroad connections, 
and, later, with reference to surrounding areas of produc- 
tion. Memory drawing of individual states is one of the 
best means of securing familiarity with the location of im- 
portant cities, rivers, mountain ranges, and boundaries. 
Groups of states may be taken up in the same way. The 
results of this kind of training in interest and accurate 
knowledge are surprising to those who try the method for 
the first time. Sketch maps of the United States, showing 
important mineral regions, forest areas, wheat and corn 
belts, and the regions in which cotton, sugar, rice, tobacco, 
and other staples are produced, prepare the pupils for the 
readings and discussions that are to follow. 



PART IV 
HISTORY CIVICS 



CHAPTER XIV 

INTRODUCTORY WORDS. HISTORY IN THE PRIMARY 

GRADES 

The greatest teacher of mankind is man. History is the 
record of men and their achievements. The lessons that 
are set forth by history pertain to every field of life and 
labor. Success and failure, causes and results, are written 
large on every page. History is a teacher, silent but elo- 
quent. It tells impressively of the need of character. 
Through history the far-reaching laws of existence, the 
causes and results of events in the life of an individual or of 
a nation, may be interpreted by students. Even children 
may read their signs, and who can say how lasting will be 
the effects upon their own lives? The personality of an 
individual and the importance of an event should be the 
basis of many a discussion in the history class. 

The most important results can not be obtained if the 
pupils read principally about our own country. Modern 
history is too complex to form the best grazing ground for 
young minds. Interest in its events and some knowledge of 
its needs and development, we must have, but its problems 
are not the best ones for the young student to attack. More- 
over, American life is an outgrowth from the older social 
and political bodies of Europe, whose conditions still con- 
tinue to influence us. In the less complex life of older 
countries, of more primitive times, the unerring law of 
cause and effect can be traced with greater ease than in the 

263 



264 METHODS IN TEACHING 

complicated narratives of later days and countries. Besides, 
when a perspective view can be taken down several centur- 
ies, confusing details are subdued or entirely hidden, and 
there are thrown into striking relief the broad principles that 
have meant the making or the undoing of a country. Even 
a sixth or a seventh grade child can see readily that the grow- 
ing corruption, luxury, and vices of Rome were important 
reasons for the downfall of that country, and the whole 
study can be based upon stories so completely that there is 
no feeling on the part of the child that the teacher is moral- 
izing or that history is prosy. On the contrary, the young 
reader is liable to feel that he has discovered a great truth, 
and he will pore over his readings with an intensity of 
interest. But, to produce this effect, the stories can not be 
taken at haphazard, they must be well selected to illus- 
trate the phases of national or individual life that it is de- 
sired to teach. 

History should begin with carefully chosen stories for 
the primary grades ; it should not become a serious study 
before the seventh year, and even in this 
Material grade the story element should still pre- 

dominate. Throughout the primary and 
early grammar grades history stories should be for cultural 
and character development and for the accumulation of a 
great amount of information, so important in a well- 
balanced, educated life. The training that can be derived 
from history studies is also a miost important factor in the 
life of a child. As the pupil passes into the later grammar 
grades, the subject matter becomes more scholarly and the 
presentation grows more systematic. 

There is so much material for story work that to choose 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 26$ 

is no easy task, as any teacher realizes who has tried to out- 
line a well centered, progressive line of history stories for 
primary grades. The folk tales that so often form a begin- 
ning in literature are well suited to the same place in history, 
and in their use no differentiation of the two studies is de- 
sirable. Fairy stories belong to a different category. When 
used, the children should know that they are not at all true, 
but rarely will the pleasure in them be diminished by such 
knowledge ; the change in attitude toward them that may be 
noticed is desirable, — the stronger minds will begin to de- 
mand " true stories " very early in school life. Fairy stories 
rarely accord with history, they belong rather to the branch- 
ing out into literature. Myths, if given their true value, are 
enjoyed at a later period of development. Myths are prop- 
erly a part of history ; they should not be given as fairy 
stories, except perhaps, those charming little nature myths 
that so delight the imagination of many children, especially 
in the first and second years. Myths should be told, read, 
enjoyed, while the children are still young enough to delight 
in their ludicrous, grotesque, impossible details ; but when, 
on the other hand, the minds are mature enough to see the 
glimmering of truth and the dawning of investigation in 
these beliefs of people long passed away. In fifth and sixth 
grades, many pupils find great satisfaction in tracing out 
how many myths came into being, and in seeing why ad- 
vancing civilization led to their abandonment or to their 
relegation to the realms of poetry and art. To put many 
myths into the first, second, or third grade is about as seri- 
ous a mistake as to expect high school pupils to read with 
patience or pleasure detailed accounts of the amours of the 
Greek gods and goddesses. The absorbed student of myths 



266 METHODS IN TEACHING 

must be either the child, just awakening into half amused, 
credulous interest in the world, or he must be the sedate 
student, revelling in the slow upbuilding of the mental proc- 
esses of civilization. 

Such poems as " Horatius," by Lord Macauley, stories 
like that of " William Tell," by Schiller, alternate delight- 
fully with the folk tales of the second year; while history 
becomes more marked in the little biographies of such men 
as Washington, Franklin, and Lincoln. From the third 
grade on, knowledge of the world grows broader and 
deeper; and, while literature and history are frequently 
correlated and are mutually helpful, the two studies are 
clearly differentiated. 

Although consecutive history does not belong to the first 

three grades, the stories gain in solidarity by grouping those 

that have a common basis. Topical ar- 

Presentation , , , . i ,i • i 

rangement becomes marked m the third 

grade, where the stories for two or three months may be 
devoted to the development of one line of thought, as Bible 
stories, lives of inventors, local history. A systematic way 
of working is developed if the teacher insists quietly but 
regularly upon acceptable forms. Even outlines, such helps 
in literary work, are used readily by children, provided they 
are active, working helps, not dead matter looked upon as 
the end to be attained. Power over books is gained steadily. 
Judgment is quickened by discussion. The importance of 
definite training in making decisions based upon proof is 
manifest when we think how many children reach the age 
of ten, eleven, even fifteen, before beginning to decide for 
themselves. A personal decision before this age too fre- 
quently means either willfulness or disobedience; hence, to 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 26/ 

" do as I like " too often means what the powers in authority 
do not like. If children grow up with this idea, we may be 
sure that they will not change it suddenly when they become 
men and women. The history recitation is one of the best 
places in the school for learning the value or the unimpor- 
tance of one's own decision ; history should teach how to 
sum up evidence, and how to make and test opinions. 

Throughout the eight elementary grades several aims 
should be kept constantly in mind by the teacher : — improve- 
ment in reading and language; acquisition 
of knowledge, especially through familiarity 
with many well known stories, for the children will never 
again be so fascinated by the pure story element, and they 
may never again have the time to give to it; constant and 
systematic mental training; development of the capacity for 
a citizenship that is rooted in love for country and apprecia- 
tion of its institutions, and that is broadened and strength- 
ened by some comparative knowledge of other countries ; an 
unceasing effort for the conscious and unconscious develop- 
ment of the child's character, possible through historical 
training, the study of real men and women, and the observa- 
tion of the great movements of the human race. 

FIRST YEAR GRADE 

There are three centers around which are grouped the 
stories for the first grade : — some of the holidays, Bible char- 
acters, Hiawatha. The holidays are attractive local centers 
of interest, and are good bases for beginning history through 
biography. They give to a holiday something of its true 
value, and should lead out into just estimates of a few of 
our great men and events. The Bible stories are simple 



268 METHODS IN TEACHING 

narratives, easily remembered because of the natural se- 
quence of their pictures and the primitive simplicity of their 

thoughts, so at one v^ith the period of the 
Material ,.,,,/, ^, r. n 

child s development. They oner fine oppor- 
tunities for undogmatic character training, and for laying 
the foundation of a knowledge that will lead into rational 
views on historical evolution. These stories are so beauti- 
ful as literature, their accounts of migrations, customs, and 
events are so important and interesting as history, that only 
the literary and historical sides should be presented to chil- 
dren. Custom decrees that religious phases should be left 
untouched. Hiawatha takes the place of more purely his- 
torical material because of its charming and sympathetic 
treatment of the lives of the aborigines. First and second 
grade children love Hiawatha, as Longfellow pictures him 
to us; from this beautiful poem they draw a truer verdict 
about the lives of the Indians than is obtained from the 
stories of war and bloodshed that are so frequently the only 
knowledge possessed even by adults about the Indians. 

Special tact and training should be possessed by the one 
who teaches beginners in the school room, for the task has 

peculiar difficulties. The history must be 
Problems arranged with constant reference to the 

problems to be met. From the first sym- 
pathy must be established between the teacher and the little 
ones, for without it the best good of the year will be missed. 
One of the earliest lessons for the untrained little minds to 
master is the meaning of attention and how to concentrate 
the thoughts upon the lesson. A well told, interesting story 
is invaluable for this purpose; history is full of stories of 
absorbing interest for young as well as old. The teacher's 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 269 

preparation must be comprehensive, both for the presenta- 
tion of the story to the class, and for the skillful drawing out 
of its reproduction from the pupils. The various desired 
results must be very clearly in mind, as must also the steps 
by which the children pass from the unknown story as it 
comes from the lips of the teacher to the completed product 
in their memories and notebooks. 

For the first two years, perhaps longer, presentation of a 
story is identical in history and literature; later comes dif- 
ferentiation. There must be considered the 
Presentation ,. . . . ^ ^ , • , 

divisions of the story, the mental attitude 

and development of the pupils, the length of time before the 
reproduction is to be made. The portion given must be very 
complete in itself, neither too short for the arousing of inter- 
est, nor too long for comparatively easy retention by the 
memory. All possible aids to the narration should be used, 
pictures, curios, blackboard drawings, sand table illustra- 
tions. Here as everywhere sweet discretion must never be 
overlooked. Too many pictures leave indistinct memories ; 
too much work at the sand table becomes tiresome. Clear- 
ness of perception, alertness of interest, these are the guid- 
ing signs by which the teacher notes success. 

When a division of a story has been well presented, it 
should be reproduced. The story interest should never be 

_ , . lost nor frayed out by repetition after repe- 

Reproduction . . ,...., 

tition. The division of the story for the 

day should always be accompanied by a specific mechanical 

aim, supported by the interest in the story itself; this may 

be a ready choice of words, consecutive thought, a really 

good story, or clearly presented " pictures." No one day 

will see the end gained, but every day may see a step towards 



2/0 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the desired accomplishment. The majority of the children 
need to drill again and again on every means of progress; 
but there is no monotony if the stories are well selected. 
The stories are always a delight, and the progress in the 
mechanics of thought and language is a steady growth. 

SECOND YEAR GRADE 

In the second grade as in the first no attempt is made to 

teach history as a subject. The stories for the year are still 

fi^rouped around the holidays, they are 
Material , , . / . . , , 

chosen because of some correlation with the 

literature, or they are simple biographies. The stories sug- 
gested by the holidays are as follows : — Admission Day, or 
** the birthday of California," in September ; Thanksgiving 
Day; Christmas. The stories correlated with the literature 
are " Horatius," the poem for January ; " William Tell," 
the story for March; and Indian life made interesting 
through the poem of " Hiawatha." The more purely his- 
torical narratives are about Columbus, in October; and 
Washington's boyhood and life during parts of the Revolu- 
tion, given in February. 

The work in the first grades is so simple that there is no 
repetition in the second grades even when the subjects reap- 
pear. For instance, the Thanksgiving story in the second 
grade tells of the Pilgrims, always interesting to little folks. 
The Christmas story tells of the babyhood of Christ, the 
flight into Egypt, and other points that belong to his youth 
or to the description of the country where he lived. The 
stories of the Indians become farther reaching than was at 
all possible in the first grade, including little studies of 
Indian wampum, the peace-pipe, canoe making. 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/1 

The aims of the work in history during the second year 
are a broadening out of those in the first year. The pupils 
should be learning more about the world, 
/pjjjjg acquiring their knowledge in good form, 

and gaining the power to use readily what- 
ever they learn. The time for history is the same as in the 
first grade, twenty minutes daily for two weeks out of every 
month. This period is used variously by the teachers, ac- 
cording to their own judgment of their classes ; but, ordi- 
narily, it is given to oral presentation and reproductions, the 
written reproductions being put into the time for penman- 
ship or drills in writing, and the illustrative drawings be- 
longing to the period for drawing. The history story is 
looked upon as furnishing material for these subjects, just 
as is the case with the literature and nature study. Written 
reproductions and drills in writing can be worked in to- 
gether very well so long as both are formal, as in the simple 
copying of the stories. When original stories begin, their 
writing can not be associated with drills in penmanship, for 
the latter is purely formal while the story writing is largely 
creative, at least in the meaning of creative for this age. 

Some teachers prefer to tell a portion of the story, having 
the reproduction follow immediately, so that the details will 
„ , , not be forgotten. In this method the teach- 

er's narration will extend over all of the first 
week, and perhaps part of the second, accompanied every 
day by the pupil's reproduction of the story of the preceding 
day, and a resume of the narrative as just given. The final 
review takes the form of either an oral or a written repro- 
duction of all or of a chosen part of the story. If time per- 
mits, the story is both told and written by the children. 



272 METHODS IN TEACHING 

The following is from a second grade teacher^ : 
The teacher usually tells the story in preference to reading 
it in order to arouse greater interest and closer attention on 
the part of the children. The work is so arranged that every 
day's narration is a natural division of the story. For in- 
stance, the story of Columbus is divided into five sections, 
one for every day of the week. Monday, a talk on the world 
as people knew about it in the fifteenth century, including 
the dangers of sea navigation at that time; Tuesday, boy- 
hood of Columbus, his love for the sea, his enjoyment in the 
sailors' tales ; Wednesday, his early manhood, his knowledge 
of the compass; Thursday, his idea about the rotundity of 
the earth, his appeals for aid to test his theories ; Friday, his 
voyage, with its dangers and difficulties, and the discovery 
of America. Every day the story as told in the previous 
lesson is rapidly reviewed, sometimes by the teacher, some- 
times by questions answered by the pupils. 

No real difficulties are given in these stories, neither do 
they go deeply into any part of the life of Columbus. They 
form a very brief sketch of some of the 
g. . salient points known about the great ex- 

plorer, upon which later studies can be built 
without wearisome repetitions of the trifling details that 
little children enjoy In these first glimpses of noted men. 
The desire Is to give such events and efforts as can be readily 
understood and remembered; they must be simple enough 
to be grasped by children ; nevertheless, they must be in ac- 
cordance with accredited history, so that there will be noth- 
ing to unlearn In later years. 

*Miss Mary E. McDougald. 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/3 

ILLUSTRATIVE PAPERS BY PUPILS, SELECTED SECTIONS. 

I. 

The Pilgrims 
a. 
These people were called Pilgrims. 

First they went to Holland, but the Pilgrim fathers and 
mothers did not like it there. 

The children were learning to speak Dutch. 

h. 

Some of them did not want to go to church. 

The fathers and mothers were not satisfied. 

They said, *' Let us go to America." 

They fitted up two ships, the " Speedwell " and the 
" Mayflower," and started across the Atlantic ocean. 

The " Speedwell " broke down, and the people had to 
come in the " Mayflower." 

c. 

Some friendly Indians came to visit the Pilgrims. 

One Indian, called Squanto, spent the winter with them 
and showed them how to plant their crops. 

In the autumn the Pilgrim fathers gathered their crops of 
wheat and barley. 

II. 

Our Flag 
June 14 is our flag's birthday. On that day, one hundred 
and twenty six years ago, the people adopted it as the flag of 
our country. 

George Washington planned the flag. It was to have 
thirteen stripes, seven red ones and six white. These were 
19 



274 • METHODS IN TEACHING 

to represent the thirteen states which then made up the 
United States. The field of the flag was to be blue, with 
thirteen white stars. A stripe and a star were to be added 
whenever a new state came into the Union. 

New stars and stripes were added until there were fifteen 
of each. It was decided then to have always thirteen stripes 
in memory of the first thirteen states. But in the blue field 
were to be as many stars as there are states in the Union. 
Now the flag has forty-five stars. When a new state comes 
into the Union another star will be added. 

The colors of the flag have a meaning too. The red 
means courage ; the white, purity ; and the blue, truth. 

THIRD YEAR GRADE 

In third grade history there is the same arrangement for 
time as in the two lower classes, twenty minutes a day for 
two weeks in every month. The growing powers of the 
child, however, make possible maturer methods of work. 

The story is now read to the class as often as it is told. 
The relief to the teacher from preparing for an oral pre- 
sentation makes room for the more careful 

rawings oversisfht of written reproductions, becom- 

ag Aids m , '^ ^ 

Presentation ^^S necessary on account of the increasing 

length of the papers and of the larger 

vocabularies used. Pictures and drawings are still, as 

throughout the course, an ever-present aid in teaching. 

Going from room to room among third grades, one notes 

with pleasure the growing power of the children in artistic 

illustration, indicated by the more ambitious drawings on 

the boards. These special pictures, by the best artists in the 

class, are preserved for days, valuable aids in the portrayal 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/5 

of characters and events of the story. In addition to them, 
every pupil is expected to use his own training in drawing 
in making original illustrations for his own written repro- 
duction. 

During the presentation of the story, questions are asked 
by the teacher to see that the thought has been fully grasped. 
This dropping into conversation is the more necessary be- 
cause a story that is read in the author's own version usually 
contains many new words ; the sentences are more involved 
than in stories which the teacher has carefully adapted to 
the development of the children ; it is also more difficult to 
get the continuous thought out of reading than to grasp it 
from a well told story. Therefore reading aloud to the chil- 
dren is a training for them that must not be neglected. 
They must be learning to enjoy books, and the desire to read 
for oneself should be assiduously cultivated. 

The reproductions begin to vary in their nature. Instead 

of trusting simply to the memory of successive events as 

a framework for the complete story, the 

XJS6 of 

Topics pupils are frequently called upon to tell 

about a certain event, to describe some per- 
son, or to narrate how an occurrence took place. That is, 
the child is being trained to recite topically; to keep to a 
certain assigned thought; to discriminate between the im- 
portant and the trivial. Not much can be done in this line 
of development, but the first steps are important even if they 
are short and faltering. More pointed questions are asked 
than in the lower classes, in order to cultivate exact obser- 
vation and accurate retention even of details. 

Outlining, that valuable aid to later historical studies, be- 
gins in this grade in the most elementary manner. The 



276 METHODS IN TEACHING 

children are asked to tell what are the principal events, 

or who are the most important persons, in the story. Then 

^ ,,. they are led to arrange the information 

Outlines -^ ^ 

given in some consecutive order. It is an 

interesting study of children's minds to notice how scattered 
the items will be when first given, and what an effort of 
memory is required to arrange all in acceptable consecutive 
form. This is the first step in outlining, in arranging 
material systematically. The little outline is developed in 
class, written upon the board item by item, as evolved by 
the pupils, and it is then used as a basis for written work. 
From the first, the outline should be a help to the pupils ; it 
is not an end to be worked for, it is an aid in the use of 
knowledge. The only use that the pupils of this age have 
for the outline is as an aid in writing a systematic, complete 
paper. Put it to this use, and, if possible, lead the children 
to see how much more systematic the work can be by its use. 
When an outline is voluntarily made use of in written repro- 
ductions an important step has been taken in developing the 
analytical powers. 

This work is an aid in the regular composition exercises, 
for it is very easy to lead pupils to put thoughts by them- 
selves. That which groups itself into a thought is often a 
natural paragraph, and it may happen that by this simple 
training in the separation of thoughts a third grade pupil 
will pass into an easy and comparatively accurate use of a 
third grade conception of a paragraph. The successive 
headings in the outline, as given by the pupils, are usually 
the subject thoughts for the successive paragraphs. No 
difficulties or uncertainties are presented to the young 
minds; they simply learn that that which we have to say 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/7 

about one related thought is put by itself in a paragraph. 
They see that Washington could not be made the subject of 
a paragraph, for it is the subject of the whole paper, and 
there are several thoughts, or paragraphs, about Washing- 
ton ; but they also see that Washington is not used as one of 
the headings in the outline, consequently the relation of the 
headings to the subject thoughts of paragraphs is not inter- 
fered with. It would be unreasonable to say that there is 
no difficulty in this training. It is exceedingly difficult, for 
it is analysis ; but it is presented in so elementary a way that 
the children take the first steps with comparative ease, thus 
beginning to understand and to practice dividing a dis- 
course into its parts, analyzing a subject into its thoughts. 
Pupils like to think ; they enjoy the conscious training of 
the power to think logically; but such an exercise should 
always be short in order not to tire the minds. Of course, 
the thoughts as suggested by the children are never in their 
right order; subordinate thoughts are always appearing in 
coordinate rank with leading headings; but all are taken, 
written upon the blackboard, and considered by the children. 
Then comes the fun and the work of arranging everything 
in proper succession and subordination. In this third grade 
outlining very few subordinate thoughts are written down ; 
only the principal thoughts, those that are to be the subjects 
of paragraphs, are written, the subordinate thoughts being 
talked over merely to show the pupils to which principal 
heading they belong. The outline as thus left on the board 
h a succession of headings that are really paragraph 
thoughts. In oral work the next day, every pupil may tell 
one paragraph, or, perhaps, all the story. 



278 METHODS IN TEACHING 

The following are some of the results out of the experi- 
ence of a third grade teacher^ : 

The first oral reproduction is often started out by ques- 
tions and answers. Narratives are based upon headings 
given orally by the teacher or written upon the board before 
the children. One device, frequently employed, is to ask 
the pupils for word pictures of people or events. The pupils 
are first asked to imagine the picture clearly to themselves, 
then to tell it aloud. Sometimes the whole is built up by 
several children. 

The first stories for the year are written in class, the 
teacher at the board writing the sentences that, after careful 
deliberation, the pupils consider the best 
W°*dne presentation of a thought, and that the 

teacher considers acceptable. The pupils at 
their seats copy ; sometimes the copying is done later, as busy 
work. Very short stories are written by the pupils without 
outlines and unaided by questions. Short and frequent 
papers are more satisfactory from all points of view than 
long and occasional ones. 

Illustration with this grade is very interesting and is pro- 
ductive of many good results. Pictures, relics, are kept 
before the class. Characteristic ways of 
-_ , . . dressing, houses occupied, and other facts 

are collected by the pupils. Perry pictures 
are used to adorn the papers, and the production that is to 
be thus embellished receives the utmost care in preparation. 
Sometimes these penny pictures are given by the teacher as 
a mark of recognition for an especially meritorious paper, 
or the children purchase them for themselves. The pupils 

*Miss Elizabeth Perry. 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 2/9 

are easily encouraged to bring to school books and pictures 
relating to the subject in hand; indeed, care must be taken 
that they do not bring them too freely. Through this chan- 
nel it is often possible to have before the class illustrative 
and supplementary material that would be quite inaccessible 
otherwise. Where no objection is raised by the pupil or is 
probable from the home so kindly loaning this material, it 
may be kept on a table in the schoolroom, where the pupils 
can look it over at their leisure and where the teacher can 
keep it under supervision. 

Third grade pupils are interested in local industries and 
modern conditions, some of which are made special features 
of the year's historical course. When 
n us ries printing is taken up, a visit to the news- 

Inventions paper office is usually permitted by one of 

the daily papers. The class is taken in 
sections for the greater convenience of the teacher, for more 
detailed investigation, and in order to be less trouble in the 
office. Before making this visit the modern newspaper is 
made the subject of study, how it is distributed, how news 
is collected, how it is printed. Some terms, such as type, 
stick, galley, form, proof-sheet, roller, are taught; the 
objects are brought to school, if possible, where they can be 
seen and handled by the children, so that they may know 
the various objects when seen in the printing office, and that 
they may talk about them more intelligently. Toy presses 
are brought to school, and some of the busy work time is 
devoted to setting up type. Many buy type and set it up at 
home. Then the visit to the printing office is made. 

After the study of the modern newspaper, the children are 
told about conditions before there were newspapers of 



280 METHODS IN TEACHING 

printed books, and the importance of printing is discussed. 
The story of its invention and inventors is then full of 
interest. 

Anotker phase of third grade w^ork is found in local his- 
tory studies. Here, as elsewhere, the children make only a 
beginning, leaving real research for maturer 
History minds. Nevertheless, this work is very real 

to the little folks, and it is of great import- 
ance in creating a taste for such investigations and in bring- 
ing together much valuable information about the home 
town. Old landmarks in Stockton are hunted out; grand- 
parents and old residents, some of whom " crossed the 
plains " in true pioneer style, are interviewed about their 
early experiences and primitive conditions in the city and 
county ; many interesting facts are brought into class, where 
they are talked over and most of them written out in the 
notebooks that the children are learning to keep. A map of 
Stockton is drawn, on which are located the principal places 
mentioned in the lessons. 

A pupil's paper on local history is given below. It is 
uncorrected, but was written after oral reproductions of the 
subject had been made in class. 

The Bear Flag 

Many years ago California belonged to Mexico. A great 
many Indians lived here, a few Mexicans, and a few white 
people who came to trap animals. 

The people in the East did not know much about Cali- 
fornia. They thought it was a desert. General J. C. Fre- 
mont came over the mountains to California to find a path. 
When he got here he asked the Mexican governor for per- 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 28 1 

mission to go through the state. But he refused. So he 
went up to the mountains and spent the winter. In the 
spring he started for Oregon. On his way he found that a 
war had broken out between United States and Mexico. So 
he took his men and went back to Sonoma. Here he took 
the Mexican governor prisoner. They took down the 
Mexican flag and raised the bear flag. This flag was made 
by taking a piece of white cloth and sewing a piece of red 
flannel across the bottom. With the juice of some berries 
they stained a bear in the center. In the upper right hand 
corner they made a star. 

Commodore Sloat came into Monterey bay with an 
American war vessel. He told his men to haul down the 
Mexican flag and put up the American flag. So CaUfornia 
belonged to the United States. They sent flags to San 
Francisco and Sonoma. When the flag reached Sonoma 
they hauled down the bear flag and with cheers raised the 
American flag. 

FOURTH YEAR GRADE 

History in the fourth grade continues, generally speaking, 
along the biographical lines of the three preceding years. 
History should mean to the children man and the develop- 
ment of mankind, and there is no means of producing this 
effect except by teaching it through men. On the other 
hand, the work should not be simply the story of a man. 
History is far broader than that, just as the life of one per- 
son can not be lived for himself alone. This, indeed, is one 
of the lessons that it is hoped the children will learn from his- 
tory. Through the lives of the men about whom they are 
learning a little, they should see the broader movements of 



282 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the period of time in which these men lived, and should 
begin to grasp the importance of a man to his period. This 
is one of the first lessons in estimating the relation of man to 
his surroundings, and one of special meaning in a republic. 

The time devoted to history in the fourth grades is the 
same as in the first three grades, twenty minutes a day for 
two weeks of every month, history still 
alternating with nature study. The children 
usually enjoy bringing into class any reading or pictures that 
they find bearing upon the history, and, unconsciously, they 
are thus being initiated into historical research. The public 
library, with which some of the pupils began to be ac- 
quainted even in the third grade, grows constantly in use 
and value for the children, many a pupil commencing to 
delight in the books found there. 

The study of inventors who have contributed greatly to 

the progress of the world is continued in this grade. The 

steam-engine in its modern uses is observed 

Inventions ^^^ discussed in class, until the importance 

and 

Inventors ^^ ^^^ invention to the world is called to the 

attention of the children. Then the lives of 
James Watt, George Stephenson, and Robert Fulton are 
studied. Electricity, its many uses and its marvellous aid to 
modern life are talked over; Edison's life, which follows, is 
always fascinating to the children. A trip to the woolen 
mills is preceded by preparing the children for what they 
are to see, and is followed by a study of some of the primi- 
tive methods of weaving and the products of simple looms. 
Some attention is given to different materials, and consider- 
able thought is directed toward the importance of the inven- 
tion to the civilization of the world. An invention is never 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 283 

Studied as an isolated fact. Its importance to man, its re- 
lation to the advancement of civilization, and its place in 
modern life, are all points for consideration. These studies 
are elementary, suited to the stage of development of the 
children ; their purpose is to turn the young minds toward 
existing conditions, the v^ay in v^hich they came into being, 
and the part taken by man in their evolution. 

Local history, first studied in the third grade, begins to 

take its place in relation to the history of the nation. The 

first local history concerns the Indians, but 

History ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ California Indians that 

are studied. The children see the actual 
daily life of the Indians of our state woven into an interest- 
ing story, that of " Docas." After the work on the natives, 
there come the lives and adventures of some of the earliest 
explorers in California and along the Pacific coast. This 
naturally leads into the accounts of the Spanish gold seek- 
ers, then into the settlements made by the Spanish in the 
west. The connection is kept with explorations in Mexico 
and trips of Spanish galleons to the Philippines. Maps and 
the globe are in constant use, so that a fairly clear child's 
idea of these events is obtained, and deep interest in them 
rarely flags. As the first of this period antedates the settle- 
ments of the English on the Atlantic coast, it is a fitting 
introduction to American history in the following year. 

The presentation of a story is similar to that of the third 
grade, except that the ripening powers of the children per- 

^ ^ ^. mit the use of more mature methods. The 

Presentation 

teacher now rarely tells the story ; it is read, 
if it is obtainable in a form suitable for the understanding of 
the children. The pupils are also reading for themselves. 



284 METHODS IN TEACHING 

They usually become interested after a story has been com- 
menced in class by the teacher and either read from the book 
used by the teacher or they succeed in finding other sources 
of information. In the latter case, considerable additional 
material may be brought into class, always a delightful 
digression from the regular form of presentation. 

The children are now mature enough to be led to see the 
daily division of the story as a whole by taking a few 

moments at the end of the period for select- 
Outlines . . , . , . . , 

mg essential pomts and writmg them on the 

board. This systematizes the information, emphasizes the 
leading thoughts, and visualizes the whole lesson in a com- 
pact form that is readily retained in the memory. It is an 
invaluable touch of training. This simple outline must be a 
means to the end, or the weaker minds in the class will be 
repelled and discouraged by the real difficulty of analyzing 
and systematizing. The children must see the aid that they 
receive from the outline ; they must not be left with the idea 
that they have worked in order to produce the outline. The 
outline was m.ade in order to be used. 

The treatment of the writing and correction of the many 
papers that accompany history belong to the section under 
language. The writing, the creative side, belongs to his- 
tory; the correction, the mechanical side, belongs purely to 
language. 

ILLUSTRATIVE PAPERS FROM PUPILS. 
UNCORRECTED 

I. 

How Steam Does its Work 
We had a glass tube with water in it, and it was corked 
tight at the top. And it opened at one side. 



HISTORY IN PRIMARY GRADES 28$ 

We held this tube over a flame until the water in the tube 
boiled. We put a little stopper in the side hole and the 
steam which the water made pushed the stopper from a little 
way in the tube to the end and then popped out on the floor. 
It came out because the steam had such a pressure. 

(There follow several papers on James Watt, George 
Stephenson, and Robert Fulton, showing the invention and 
development of the steam engine. The experiments with 
steam preceded the stories of the inventors, so that their 
work might be more fully appreciated.) 

II. 

One story is chosen from the many written by the pupils 
on early California. 

Finding Monterey 

Portola came back to San Diego discouraged and said 
there was no Monterey. But Father Junipero Serra who 
had heard Portola's story thought that they had found the 
bay, but didn't know it. Portola was so discouraged that 
he wanted to go back to New Spain. He said. " Our food is 
giving out, and we shall starve to death if we don't go back. 
Measure out the food and see how long we can stay, and on 
the next day we will start." So they measured out the food 
and it would just keep them twenty days. The days dragged 
by and the nineteenth day came. They packed their bag- 
gage, and fixed the vessel, and were already to start, but 
early on the twentieth morning a cry rang through the camp, 
" A sail ! A sail !" They all ran out and there was a sail in 
a distance. This ship brought food and a letter. 



286 METHODS IN TEACHING 

As soon as they could they started up the coast one party 
by land and the other by water. They soon got at Monterey 
and set up an altar and they swung the bells which rang out 
to the sleeping hills, they then fired volley after volley and 
they, too, rang out the claims of the Spanish King. 



CHAPTER XV 

HISTORY IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES 

FIFTH YEAR GRADE 

In the fifth grade the pupils are considered old enough to 
commence a systematic study of the history of our country ; 
a text book is put into their hands, and the 
story is made continuous. The time is also 
extended, in order to give a longer period for consecutive 
work, and history alternates month by month with literature. 
The daily period is also lengthened by the introduction of a 
definite time for the preparation of the lesson by the children, 
twenty or twenty-five minutes for study. The lives of men 
are still the centers of the stories, for with children no inter- 
est is stronger than that of human life ; but periods of history 
are marked off far more distinctly than in the preceding 
years. This is very easily accomplished in the child's mind, 
but the teacher must be skillful in keeping the right propor- 
tion between periods and between men. 

In the fourth grade the pupils have become somewhat 
familiar with maps and the globe, so the period of explora- 
tions and discoveries is preceded by considerable geographi- 
cal study, in order to obtain an idea of what constituted the 
known world in the times preceding Columbus. Without 
such an introduction no clear idea can be gained of the rea- 
sons for the voyages that resulted in the discovery of 
America. The children can understand in part the frenzied 

287 



288 METHODS IN TEACHING 

search for the wealth of the Indies, and time can even be 
found to tell a little of the story of Vasco da Gama and of 
that of Marco Polo. Thus the efforts and voyages of 
Columbus begin to take their right place in the world's his- 
tory, and his long trip to the west across the mysterious 
Atlantic has a new meaning to the children. They have 
already, in the fourth grade, heard some of the stories about 
the coming of the Spaniards ; here is the opportunity, in the 
fifth grade, to show how these explorers had followed fast 
on the track of Columbus, eager to take advantage of his 
discoveries. This review of the fourth grade stories, the 
more detailed accounts of Columbus, round out sufficiently 
for the fifth grade the Spanish explorations. The discover- 
ies of the French are omitted entirely ; those of the English 
center around the Cabots, Henry Hudson, and the settle- 
ments in Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. The 
colonial life is given character and distinctive existence by 
the stories that cluster around the lives of such men as Miles 
Standish, Benjamin Franklin, William Penn, the boyhood of 
Washington, and the Indians. 

It is not the accumulation of historical facts that is de- 
sired, there will be plenty of time for them later. It is the 
picturing by the children of the life of a 
period that is valuable, the collection of 
many details, incidents, stories, that will vivify a period and 
give it reality in later history study. There should be a 
solidarity about every period. The life should be seen in 
those details that are dear to the hearts of all children : the 
houses lived in, the mails, the work done, the implements 
used, the means of transportation, the love for England, the 
kind of liberty that came to the dwellers in the new land. 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 289 

This is not difficult, for all of it can be found in the stories 
of the period, in illustrations, and from knowing what the 
men themselves did and how they accomplished their ends. 
The work should always be more than pure biography, it 
should be a picture of the time studied. 

In the latter half of the year there are given stories of 
the Revolution, the Opening of the West, and the Civil War. 
To the child Washington is the man most intimately asso- 
ciated with the Revolution, and the war is grouped around 
his heroic struggles. Daniel Boone is the hero of the period 
of expansion that followed the establishment of peace, and 
intensely interesting he is to the children. Abraham Lincoln 
is the hero of the Civil War. Stories of this great Ameri- 
can, heard by the pupils in the third grade, are renewed, and 
to them are added many others showing the determined 
effort of Lincoln that all human beings in our country should 
be free. The war is not studied as a war ; it is a background 
on which are sketched some of the great incidents in the 
life and efforts of Lincoln. 

The children are now delighted to read for themselves, if 

the way is only opened for them, and they will search 

happily and persistently for reading on 

topics in which they have been interested. 

It is often surprising what mature books children will read 

understandingly, if they have only been given enough of the 

story to be able to follow its development through even 

unknown words and new sentence forms. While books for 

children are not to be decried, still much of the so-called 

juvenile reading is so puerile as to be a positive injury to 

young minds. As squirrel's teeth are kept sharp and clean 

by gnawing hard substances, so children's minds are sharp- 

20 



290 METHODS IN TEACHING 

ened and brightened by contact with invigorating mental 

food. What difference does it make if there are in a book 

many words that a child has never seen before ? How is he 

to learn new words? To give a child interesting reading 

containing many words whose meaning he does not know is 

like giving a squirrel nuts to crack. If the story is alluring, 

the meaning of the new words will be found out by some 

means. 

The outline, used tentatively in the third and fourth 

grades, becomes a recognized tool during this year. The 

^ ,. teacher's outline may sometimes be used as 

Outlines 

a model and an incentive to progress, and 

the teacher should often work over with the pupils their 
outlines. As such a lesson is very instructive for all the 
class, board work is better than individual criticisms. The 
teacher must not be too ambitious for her pupils in this 
acquirement. It must be remembered that outlines are 
largely a matter of judgment, a faculty slightly developed 
with fifth grade pupils. The training to be derived from 
outlines in this grade is the help they afford in the develop- 
ment of the judgment, of the power of analysis, and of the 
ability to put together in a continuous, systematic form the 
thoughts of any whole. These three processes, at least, are 
involved. A story is before a child as a whole, as the 
teacher has told it, or as he has read it for himself. He is 
to mention the various important thoughts in that story; 
that is, he is to analyze it, selecting certain thoughts and re- 
jecting others. Then he is to arrange those thoughts ac- 
cording to their proper relation to one another ; that is, he is 
to exercise continuity of thought. When we think how 
many mature people are lacking in judgment, analysis, or 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 29 1 

continuity of thought, we must be very considerate about 
the young minds, and not tax them too severely. We wish to 
give them just the powers so conspicuously lacking in many 
people, but if too much is asked in difficult lines, a distaste 
for the work is created that may never be overcome. In 
fifth grades, and even throughout all the grammar grades 
and the first year of the high school, outlines should be very 
simple, rarely going to more than a second indentation, that 
is, to the second division of a thought. They should also 
be of use to a child, an aid in doing some work, for the 
thought should never be permitted that the outline is the end 
for which one is working; it is a tool. The outlines should 
be made because they are to be used in reproductions, in reci- 
tations, in writing, in memorizing, in examinations. Their 
frequent use in this way leads a child to depend upon them, 
which really means that the minds are being trained to de- 
pend upon order, system, judgment, analysis. Is this not a 
desirable end? Nevertheless, I have known teachers who 
stopped using outlines when they noticed that the children 
were beginning to depend upon them ! Did such teachers 
comprehend the first uses of an outline? 

Recitations must be varied in order not to become monot- 
onous. The child is roused to strive for a clearer under- 
standing of what he is studying if he does 
Reproduction , "^ , , , . . , „ , 

not know whether he is simply to tell the 

story, or to be quizzed searchingly, or to uphold his views 
and knowledge in discussions with fellow-pupils. Discus- 
sions are excellent eye-openers, and serve to make the chil- 
dren alert to ideas, judgments, and conclusions. The talk- 
ers should not be permitted to become personal in their argu- 
ments, but a discussion can be very brisk and instructive 



292 METHODS IN TEACHING 

without any objectionable features. Quizzes put a child 
on the watch to know everything that he can find out about 
a lesson, and they give a teacher chance to probe deep into 
real and assumed knowledge. Reproductions give a pupil 
confidence in himself, by leading him to stand before a class, 
to try to express himself understandingly, and to tell a com- 
plete story in an interesting manner. Unless a story is very 
short, a child should rarely be called upon to " tell all he 
knows " about a story. Such a request leads to diffuseness, 
to scattering thoughts, to bombast. Give a topic, and hold 
a child to careful, well expressed reproduction of that part 
of the story, with no wanderings into any other portion. If 
it is really desired to test a child's memory of a whole story, 
it is better that he should reproduce it according to the out- 
line, following the principal thoughts and omitting the de- 
tails; but this is summarizing, not reproducing. 

Fifth grade pupils understand and enjoy maps and the 
globe. During the whole period of explorations and dis- 
coveries the globe is an essential aid. It 
of History should be used in connection with wall maps 

of the sections under discussion. In the 
period of settlements, the map of the United States is pre- 
ferable to maps of states or of special localities, for the pupils 
are not yet familiar enough with the outlines of the whole 
country to study profitably the details of smaller portions. 
Trace out settlements, arctic explorations, crossing the 
mountains into the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi. The 
pupils should draw many outline maps. 

History made interesting to the children can not fail to be 
productive of results in character building. Love for some 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 293 

of our great men, admiration for their energy, self-sacrifices, 
and persistency, tend to elevate the ideals of children. They 
can not study the characteristics of men, 
Results watching a boy become great, as Washing- 

Gained *^"' Franklin, Lincoln, seeing the strength 

of character behind the deeds, realizing 
the difficulties to be overcome, without looking on life gener- 
ally, and their own lives in particular, in a broader, better 
way. One's own difficulties seem less when compared with 
what some one else has overcome, and on which he has risen 
to strong and noble manhood. From the warnings and 
examples of history one should learn better living and 
greater love for home and country. 

The following thoughts are from a fifth grade teacher^ : 

One of the chief values of history work lies in the oppor- 
tunity which it affords for teaching good habits of study. 
Every day some independent preparation 
of Study must be made by the pupil. This should be 

carefully assigned, so that too much is not 
required in a given time. One of the principal reasons for 
poor preparation of work in all studies in the grades is that 
too much is expected for the length of the period for study. 
Lessons half learned a few times lead to careless habits of 
preparation that might have been avoided had but little been 
required but thorough mastery insisted upon. 

Another fault is that the teacher works too much with the 
class, too little time being given to independent preparation. 
Some pupils thus gain nearly all of their knowledge from 
class work, and almost the only habit formed is the destruc- 
tive one of dependence. The chief value of working in 

* Miss Elma Hopkins. 



294 METHODS IN TEACHING 

sections is that the child is forced to work without help from 
the teacher and to depend upon himself. 

Outlines prepared by the teacher are used freely in the 
preparation of a lesson. Only important points are noted, 
so that the pupils know for what they are 
PrM)aration ^^ ^^ ^^^^ answerable. Their use while 

studying accustoms a child to a systematic 
arrangement of the material in a lesson from its assignment 
to the final writing. Sometimes the outline is screened from 
view while the class is studying the lesson for the first time ; 
then, with book closed and outline in view, every pupil is 
supposed to go over the lesson again, testing his knowledge, 
discovering his weak places, and, finally, looking up what- 
ever he does not know well. 

The outline given below is a composite, made in class and 
copied from the board, showing how the pupils are trained 
to make and use outlines. 

I. 

Henry Hudson 

I. Conditions three hundred years ago. 

1. England poor. 

2. Spain rich from gold mines in America. 

3. Portugal rich by southern route to Asia, 
n. Muscovy Company formed. 

1. Wish to find northern route to Asia. 

a. Failure. 

h. Trade with Russia. 

2. Henry Hudson employed by the Muscovy Com- 

pany. 
a. Found no northern route to Asia. 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 295 

b. Found many whales. 

c. Stopped by ice on second voyage. 
3. Muscovy Company discouraged. 

a. Decide to make money from whales. 
III. Hudson employed by the Dutch East India Company. 

An original outline follows, showing how slowly the 
pupil's mind grasps the large headings which are to be sub- 
divided. Details stand out unrelated to a main topic. No 
corrections have been made. 

II. 

Morse and the Telegraph 

I. Difficulties before the invention of the telegraph. 

I. Mail carried on horseback. 
II. Morse sent to Yale College. 

1. Interested in electricity. 

2. Becomes a painter. 

III. In 1832 Morse sails to Europe. 

IV. Morse plans the telegraph. 

V. Morse becomes a professor in 1835. 
VI. Morse meets young Vail.. 

I. Experiment by Vail and Morse. 
VII. Judge Vail decides to give Morse money. 
VIII. Vail improves Morse's invention. 
IX. Judge Vail growing discouraged. 
X. Telegraph proves successful. 
XL Congress gives Morse money. 
XII. Puts wires underground but fails. 
XIII. In 1844 Miss Ellsworth sent first message over the 
wires. 



296 METHODS IN TEACHING 



SIXTH YEAR GRADE 

As the pupils grow older their work should become more 
scholarly and their methods of reproduction and composition 

should be growing more and more mature. 
Material '^^^ grammar grades are the starved grades 

in many schools, although unconsciously so. 
Children in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades can read 
much if they have the material. They long to know about 
the world, the whole world ; no country is so remote that it 
can not arouse their curiosity, no people so quaint that it can 
not interest them. The sense of acquisitiveness is so strong 
at this time that, rightly managed, an immense amount of 
information can be gained between the years of eleven and 
fifteen. How much many children read at home! How 
eager they are to visit every *' show " that comes along ! It 
is the natural desire of the time of life. The world is be- 
ginning to assert its hold over the imaginations, and these 
are the years when habits of work and reading are becoming 
life methods. This condition is not fully enough recognized 
in our schools ; to do so would be expensive, for it would 
mean equipping grade libraries. Consequently, children 
suffer from an ill-timed economy. There should be books 
in abundance where the children can use them freely. These 
should be on all subjects within the comprehension of the 
children, and some of them should be leading out into new 
fields of thought so attractively that inquiring minds will be 
charmed along hitherto unknown paths. Better equip- 
ments for children in science and manual training are being 
granted in many schools, and it is to be hoped that the pur- 
chase of well selected grade libraries for every school, or 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 29/ 

every small group of schools, will be one of the steps taken 

in the near future. 

The history of the sixth grade is arranged to meet the 

craving to know about the world. There are stories of the 

earliest days, when human beings lived in 

^ caves; then the life of mankind is traced 

Grade 

Stories down through the development of several 

nations. It is not intended to study history 
seriously, but it is desired to place before the children con- 
siderable reliable information about the past, so that a truer 
understanding may be gained eventually of our own life and 
place in the world. In this way, sixth grades read many 
stories of ancient history, before the era of Christ. Seventh 
and eighth grades take up stories of the Middle Ages and of 
England. During these last two years the United States 
history is the regular class work, and we find that it is more 
easily mastered because of all the story work on earlier 
nations that has preceded. It is interesting to note that the 
stories, read and discussed as such, are often more easily 
remembered than is the American history, the work for the 
class. 

This distribution of time and application serves well the 
culture growth of the children; for, having once become 
acquainted with the true stories of history, few pupils lose 
their liking for this great study, '* the story of man." To 
attain this end the pupils must like the stories. This can 
be done by remembering that knowledge is not the first and 
only object sought. The purposes are rather: the forma- 
tion of a deep and lasting interest in history; an apprecia- 
tive study of man and his development; mental training in 
rapid reading, accumulation of facts, ready discussion, 



298 METHODS IN TEACHING 

formation of judgments based upon proofs, and systematic 

arrangement of the knowledge gained ; historical knowledge. 

In order to like history a child must read easily and widely, 

not narrowly and intensely on a short period of time where 

he is expected to master all the details. To 
^ . . study the men about whom he reads, he 

must discuss their motives and characters, 
and he must compare them with one another. To acquire 
mental training the material used must be systematized, and 
the judgment must be exercised and developed. In all these 
efforts at education the teacher must remember that sixth 
grade training must be simple. Discussions and decisions 
will be crude, but the fact of using powers means their 
growth. The pupils are in the story age. They can read 
many accounts that turn about the same center of knowledge 
without tiring of the subject. Thus, by varying the stories 
but keeping the same center of thought, material is accu- 
mulated for discussions, comparisons, outlines ; and broader 
knowledge comes from the presentation of a thought or fact 
in several different guises. 

For instance, the love of the Greeks for adventurous ex- 
peditions comes out very clearly from reading the stories of 
Jason, the Iliad, the Odyssey. To the pupil there is no repe- 
tition of thought, but, if the discussions have been kept up, 
and if the teacher is skillful in drawing out the character- 
istics of the Greeks that led to these expeditions, at the end 
of the reading the pupil will have a knowledge of the way 
in which the Greeks during the period of colonization scat- 
tered their life, customs, and seeds of awakening intelligence 
all around the Black Sea, in Asia Minor, in Southern Italy 
and the adjacent islands. It is a knowledge that is import- 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 299 

ant to an understanding of the rousing up of civilization in 
Europe. Sixth grade pupils can see it as a matter of course, 
in a child's way it is true, but the fact will cling to their 
memories if it is well impressed by stories and maps ; high 
school pupils, however, often finish ancient history without 
a thought of this strong connecting link between ancient and 
mediaeval civilizations. What is true of this topic is equally 
true of many others. The pupils are reading stories and 
enjoying them, but, if properly guided, they are also laying 
an excellent foundation for later serious studies. 

Another instance of this cultural training may be found 
in seventh grade reading on the feudal system and the 
Crusades. From well selected stories pupils can gain a sur- 
prising amount of interesting knowledge concerning the 
commercial, political, and social conditions of mediaeval days, 
leading to a fair understanding of the reasons for the dis- 
covery of America and for the revolt against Old World 
customs that caused the establishment of our freer political 
institutions. Such readings and deductions are a delightful 
part of grammar grade history. No attempt should be made 
to build up historical structures, but the foundation laid for 
those of later years should be firm and true. During all this 
period of story reading the pupils will scarcely have realized 
that they have been working. Not that pupils should not 
work knowingly, but they will be learning one of the first 
important lessons in the acquisition of history, that work in 
history is thoughtful and systematic reading. If, then, chil- 
dren are learning to read history intelligently and with pleas- 
ure, they are also learning to work happily. 

In the stories of Greece and Rome the pupils are now old 
enough to distinguish between the myth and the germ of 



300 METHODS IN TEACHING 

truth at its root, and they can see how the myth grew up 
naturally in the lives of these beauty loving, inquisitive, 
primitive people. Consequently, the historical myths are 
more interesting here than in the lower grades, where the 
little children can not differentiate between the truth and 
the fancy in the story. The life and development of both 
Greece and Rome can be shown by a comparatively small 
number of stories, grouped around centers of national 
growth and enlivened by accounts of men and events. In- 
stitutions and laws belong to later years. 

Methods as well as material should be progressing con- 
stantly. That which fifth grade pupils did well should be 
the basis upon which the sixth grade builds. 

X n/r ^1. J The teacher should know what the children 

of Methods 

were able to do in any given exercise, as 

outlining, in the preceding grade ; she should try them to see 

just how much they can do well, and then advance them 

certain steps. 

The fifth grade pupil did not attempt to outline beyond 

headings for paragraphs in separate, comparatively short 

stories, with a few indented suggestions for 
Outlining 

the body of every paragraph. His outlining 

was preparatory to writing. The sixth grade pupil will con- 
tinue much of this paragraph outlining as an assistance to 
written reproduction; but he will also begin to outline a 
subject by its larger heads. In the fifth grade these larger 
heads have been given by the teacher as the subjects to be 
outlined, because the judgment and analytical powers of the 
children were still too immature for them to reason beyond 
the details. Sixth grade pupils will not go far beyond that 
point, but they can take a subject that has been under con- 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3OI 

sideration for several days and give the most prominent 
headings, so leading out towards a larger, more complete 
view of a subject. This means that two kinds of outlines 
are being carried on in the sixth grade ; or, more properly, 
that the new step added to the fifth grade outline seems 
temporarily like a new kind of outline. These can seldom 
be worked out satisfactorily on the same day. If the larger 
headings for a complete story have been developed, the 
teacher will find that the minds are tired by this stretching 
process, as it really is to the children, and that the hour would 
better be filled out with some interesting narrative. The fol- 
lowing day one of the headings from this complete outline 
can be treated in detailed, or paragraph outline. This will 
be far easier work than that of the preceding day. In de- 
veloping the outline the reading from various books should 
be put together ; this will have its special difficulties of amal- 
gamation, usually confusing to children, who do not compre- 
hend at first how to combine thoughts from several authors. 
The minds are still young. 

It is good practice occasionally to write an outline on the 
board just as it is given by the class, and then to rearrange it 
for continuity of thought. In an outline of any length there 
will be much to do, and a great deal of guidance will be 
necessary. There are two reasons why continuous thought 
comes slowly : we are all prone to f orgetfulness, leaving out 
something that we know full well belongs in the develop- 
ment, and putting it in when we think of it, out of its place, 
of course; continuity of thought is a power of maturity, 
whose fullness can not be expected from these children. It 
is being cultivated, but its growth can not be forced, it 
must be developed through careful, intelligent use. 



302 METHODS IN TEACHING 

The outline may or may not be left before, the pupils dur- 
ing the written reproductions. If the story is long, requiring 
several days for writing, the outline will be a great aid, and 
results will be better. If the memory is to be trained, the 
prop should be taken away by erasing the outline. Memory 
is a useful servant, but other faculties are of equal or greater 
importance of life work. 

If the topic for writing is assigned occasionally a day or 
two in advance, the pupils have a chance to think over what 

they wish to say and how best to say it. 
Papers 

Careful workers soon learn to take advan- 
tage of the opportunity to look up the spelling of new words, 
to think out a satisfactory outline, and to prepare in many 
ways. The results are naturally better than when the efforts 
are extemporaneous. This kind of preparation also tends 
to cultivate a habit of self-examination concerning readiness 
for a task, a habit of incalculable importance in the produc- 
tion of satisfactory work and in the formation of character. 
Still more ambitious papers may be written by giving the 
pupils a week to prepare on either an assigned topic or on 
one chosen by the writer. Reading from reference books 
then becomes possible, and actual research in history is be- 
ginning. The reading references should be suggested by 
the teacher, so that too difficult tasks are not left to untrained 
minds. Selection of material is one of the most involved 
steps in the preparation of a paper. 

There are the usual accessories of maps, illustrations, 

reference books. The maps are for fixing 

. . the larsfer features; the less important ones 

Accessories ^ 

become known through repetition. The 

illustrations that are now used often have considerable 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3O3 

value. These should be exposed somewhere in sight of the 
pupils so that they become a part of their germinating artis- 
tic and intellectual life. Reference books should be fur- 
nished every school ; they may be drawn from public librar- 
ies; sometimes they are willingly loaned for careful use by 
private owners. Reading is to history what plants and ani- 
mals are to nature study, the material with which to work. 
Reading is a necessity. 

From the sixth grade on throughout life as a student, note 
taking and the notebook have dignity and importance. In 
the book are collected all papers of value, 
° ^ separate sheets that are preserved as writ- 

ten. The best form of notebook that has 
been evolved from our work is the one composed of separate 
sheets, comprising work of all kinds connected with the 
study, fastened together in a folder or a homemade cover of 
pasteboard. Paper fasteners are not satisfactory for hold- 
ing the leaves together as they do not permit the book to 
open freely enough. A string holds the sheets safely and 
allows ease in turning. 

The time given to history during the year is twenty weeks, 

in two periods of ten weeks each, alternating with literature 

periods of the same length. The daily 

allotment of time is forty-five minutes, 

twenty for study, twenty-five for recitation. 

The following thoughts are from a sixth grade teacher^ : 
For the history of primitive man Ragozin's " Earliest 
Peoples " is used. The book is too difficult 
^^^^ to be put into the hands of the pupils for un- 

aided reading and study, so it is read aloud 
by the teacher. Discussions and reproductions by the class 

* Miss Charlotte Treanor. 



304 METHODS IN TEACHING 

follow. By this means there is gained an introductory 

knowledge of the world before the age of Greek civilization. 

Attention is called to the westward movement in the life of 

the world, and this tendency is referred to frequently 

throughout the term. The stories of Kablu, Darius, and 

Cleon are read from " Ten Boys." A time line is begun and 

continued during the term. A cross in the middle indicates 

the beginning of the Christian era ; time before Christ is put 

at the left, and time after Christ at the right of the cross. 

Early Greek history is studied through stories of the gods, 

many beautiful myths showing the childlike attempts of the 

Greeks to explain the phenomena of nature. 
Greece 

While reading about the heroes and the 

period of the Trojan War, fully two-thirds of the class have 
read large parts of the '' Iliad " and the '' Odyssey " in the 
children's editions in the room. A comparison of Sparta 
and Athens is made through stories of the life and training 
of the people in the two cities. The next age is best told by 
the lives of some of the great men; as, Pericles, Socrates, 
Demosthenes, and Alexander. Pictures are an important 
source of information, study, and pleasure. A brief glance 
is given to the overthrow of Greece by the rising power of 
Rome. 

Through selected stories the children learn to see the 
Romans as an energetic, industrious race, fond of conquest, 
intensely patriotic; training the young men 
carefully in the art of war, and according 
great honors to successful warriors. " Horatius," studied 
and partially learned in the second grade, proves an inter- 
esting foundation for some of the conquests made by the 
early Romans. Some rays of light are thrown on the long 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3O5 

and bitter struggle between the patricians and the plebeians 
by a few of the most stirring tales of those days. There are 
pictures and descriptions of the temples, theaters, aqueducts ; 
the military roads are admired by the pupils, who receive 
through them some idea of the necessity of marching armies 
quickly from one part of the Empire to the other. Greek 
influence is noted in the artistic life of the people. Chariot 
racing is made more vivid by reading the chariot race in 
" Ben Hur." The war with Carthage is intensely interest- 
ing, and keen sympathy is aroused for the conquered city. 
Augustus Caesar is presented as one of the best emperors. 
Nero is selected as a contrasting type, with his cruel perse- 
cutions of the Christians. For many centuries the power of 
Rome weakened. The children read with interest stories of 
the barbarians who swept down upon Rome from the north, 
terrifying the Empire, and finally subverting the conditions 
of Roman life. 

This is but a meagre outline of the work given. Every- 
where it is presented through stories, whose meanings are 
often seen by the children without help. Connecting links 
between periods must be supplied by the teacher, but these 
are given in a few words that are made more comprehensible 
by keeping the trend of events in every period before the 
minds of the pupils. 

A large map of the country being studied is drawn upon 
the board, and important places are located as they come up 
in the recitations. This map is made per- 
manent for the term by being outlined in 
thin white paint. The places are located temporarily in 
chalk, so that the day's lesson may be erased if desired with- 
out destroying the outline. In a short time the principal 



306 METHODS IN TEACHING 

rivers, lakes, bays, mountains, cities, and provinces are 
quickly and accurately located whenever mentioned. At the 
end of the term the painted outline can be removed easily 
from the board. 

SEVENTH YEAR GRADE 

In the seventh grade the subject for the year is American 
history. This is introduced by stories of the Crusades, 
selected and prepared for the classes so as 
Introduction to show the restlessness of the Middle Ages 

History ^"^ ^^^ knowledge of the world that was 

gradually leading men out of their own 
home countries into distant lands. The pupils thus see how 
the Europeans came into contact with the higher civilization 
of the older countries of the East, imbibing many of the 
luxurious tastes there prevalent. To supply the commodi- 
ties demanded by these new tastes long and difficult com- 
mercial voyages were undertaken, well suited to adventurous 
spirits that still held back from the more settled, monotonous 
habits of industrial life. 

All the time desired can not be given this period of 
awakening in Europe, so fitting an introduction to the dis- 
covery of America, for it is also desirable to familiarize the 
pupils somewhat more specially with life and conditions in 
England just before the voyages of discovery and the begin- 
nings of settlements in America. For this purpose a text is 
used. The whole book can not be read and discussed in 
class, and it is not desirable that it should be ; but selections 
are made of stories illustrative of the periods most closely 
connected with American history. Many pupils read the 
entire book for themselves. 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 307 

After a rather too brief introduction of this sort, when its 
importance in our history is considered, the regular study of 

American history is begun. In addition to 
Library ^^^ ^^^^ purchased by the pupil, three other 

authors are kept in sets in every seventh 
grade room, so that every pupil has four books to which he 
can refer in preparing his lessons. The use of the city 
library by the pupils broadens and strengthens in every 
grade. This is a fact of importance and magnitude. The 
children should not be simply turned loose in a library, 
to select anything that suits them; they are not yet old 
enough to be discriminating, nor will they be for several 
years to come. Neither is it ordinarily satisfactory to leave 
them to the guidance of librarians, unless there is a juvenile 
room in charge of a capable, sympathetic person. No one 
can know so well as the teacher just what topics and what 
phases of them are to be discussed and emphasized in the 
class. That the teacher keep in close touch with the reading 
becomes of more importance constantly as the pupils and 
the study become more mature. This is the source of 
supply, the subject matter, the red blood from which is to 
come the live tissue of the body of knowledge that is to 
be built up. If the library is large and if the teacher is very 
busy, and what conscientious teacher is not? it may follow 
that the library is not thoroughly canvassed for a year or 
two; but when this has once been done and the teacher 
knows just what books are applicable to her class work, it 
is not difficult to keep track of the new books that are added 
to the library. By putting the information about all these 
books into the topically arranged card catalogue of accessi- 
ble books for the class, which should be a part of the outfit 



308 METHODS IN TEACHING 

of every teacher, the great problem of supplementary read- 
ing is reduced to system, and ceases to be a constantly re- 
curring bugbear. The teacher and the librarian should 
work together for the good of the schools. It is a most 
efficient aid in the use of books, and it is eventually for the 
best good both of the public and of the library. 

In the seventh grade the time for history is doubled; it 
becomes forty-five minutes a day for the year, instead of for 

five months, as in the preceding grades. 
xinic 

Twenty minutes are usually taken for prepa- 
ration, twenty-five for recitation. 

Pupils should be growing more independent in prepara- 
tion, although the proportion indicated above of study time 

to recitation time shows that the influence 
Preparation of the teacher in guiding is still considered 

Recitation preponderant over the discrimination powers 

of the child in choosing for himself. Reci- 
tations must include time for careful suggestions about read- 
ing and methods of work. The value of definite assign- 
ments can not be over estimated, but a failure to make clear 
just what is to be done and how it is to be done is one of the 
most frequent weaknesses of teachers. The lesson should 
rarely, perhaps never, be assigned as so many pages. 
Topics, even if only the paragraph headings, should be 
plainly dictated. The alert teacher, however, will seldom 
be satisfied to use these summaries as topics for the lesson. 
More personal topics will be chosen, something that can be 
made more a part of the class life than the headings from 
any book, no matter how scholarly. They will be such as 
the teacher will select, through a knowledge of the class, as 
necessary to the promotion of some undeveloped thought in 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3O9 

the recitations, or those that are most accessible in the refer- 
ence books, or that lead directly into future studies. In 
short, here as everywhere, there should be that class person- 
ality without which all teaching palls. The topics are placed 
upon the board; pupils are expected to prepare themselves 
thoroughly either from the class text or from that and the 
reference books. This may be the material for the first 
day's recitation. The next day, after this preparatory sys- 
tematizing of the topics, broader reference reading may 
come, perhaps for individual reports from different books, 
or as reading by all the class on some special phase of the 
lesson from any supplementary author. The latter method 
is usually preferred, for reproductions from individual read- 
ings tend toward dry resumes, appreciated by few, no mat- 
ter how conscientious the child who makes the report. This 
method is more practicable with older students. The second 
manner of preparation, all looking up the same topic but 
from various books, is more liable to bring out discussions, 
comparison of opinions, expressions of differing ideas, all of 
which result in live, vigorous class work. The larger the 
number actively interested in a recitation, really taking part 
in furnishing details, or in presenting ideas for the discus- 
sion, the greater will be the life and energy of the recitation. 
On some days, careful, thorough reproduction of the text 
that has been read is excellent drill. Pupils do what they 
are directed to do ; they have a natural tendency to neglect 
what is not required. Consequently, in leading a class out 
into discussions, care must be taken not to permit a neglect 
of restating exactly the author's opinion. The teacher 
should call frequently, every day perhaps, for an exact 
rendering of what Fiske, Montgomery, or any other author 



3IO METHODS IN TEACHING 

used in the preparation, says in regard to any point in the 
lesson. Sometimes a reproduction of the whole lesson, 
topic by topic, should be called for. Two ends are gained 
by this kind of a recitation, formal as it may seem at first 
glance. The pupils are led to notice more carefully what 
they are reading, and, gradually, to form the habit of pictur- 
ing mentally the thoughts of an author, a most important 
power; secondly, the memory is steadily developed, and this 
is a servant too useful to be left untrained. Every recitation 
can be made to vary in some respect from those immediately 
preceding, so that monotony of presentation, that deadly 
enemy of enjoyable class work, does not lay hold of the 
pupils. 

Another feature of the instruction that is beginning to 
take shape is the presentation by the teacher of definite sup- 
plementary knowledge. While this is never 
th T \ ^^ formal as to deserve the name of a 

" lecture," it partakes of that nature. From 
books that are inaccessible to the children or that are too 
difficult for them to assimilate in undiluted form, the teacher 
collects points of interest and importance. When these are 
given in sufficient abundance to warrant note taking, the 
pupils should be asked to keep track of what has been told 
them, incorporating it in some shape in their notebooks. 
Like outlining, this method is easily abused, for children 
never like taking many notes; but if the insistence of the 
teacher on taking the notes is in a spirit of helpfulness, and 
if the children are led to use the material in some way, and 
to appreciate the assistance furnished by their notes in 
writing or reciting, the majority of the pupils respond 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3II 

quickly and happily, and the talks by the teacher have an 

added force. 

Outlines continue, still largely as composites, produced by 

all the pupils working together, guided by the teacher ; some 

orisfinal efforts are made, and with very 
Outlines ^, , -r 1 , , , , . 

good results if the work can be analyzed m 

a manner already familiar to the children. The reasons for 
not leaving the children to their own devices are the same 
as in previous years. The powers of analyzing, judging, 
selecting, and systematizing material, upon which the value 
of an outline depends, are still immature. They are not be- 
ing used so much as being trained, developed, through all 
these years, preparatory for later actual use. Consequently, 
the work should never be very difficult nor should it be left 
without supervision. It is like developing a muscle; there 
must be wise oversight or there may result injury rather than 
education. 

The notebook may add greatly to the pleasure of the 

class, and every pupil should be encouraged to put together 

one of which he will be proud at the end of 

„° f the year. These books are not to be left in 

Books "^ 

desuetude under the desks, simply kept as 
receptacles for the papers of the term; they are for use; 
they are practical, indispensable aids. On certain days there 
are reviews of the month's work, based on the indexes of 
certain notebooks. This brings out friendly comparison of 
the number of papers and of pages written and preserved; 
of the notes taken from the teacher's talks and from supple- 
mentary reading ; of the maps made ; of the drawings by the 
pupils themselves; of the pictures collected. Some of the 
papers are read, a map is reproduced on the board, or an 



312 METHODS IN TEACHING 

especially original outline is read, discussed, or recited upon. 

The notebooks are used as a partial proof of scholarship, of 

ability to pass the subject. The books sometimes go home 

for the approval of the parents before the end of the term, 

so that the stimulus thus obtained may come back into the 

class. 

It is possible that the English history may have been 

given in a fragmentary manner throughout the year, fitted 

into the periods of American history so as 
Summaries .,, . , , . , , 

to illummate the relations between the two 

countries. When this is the case the detached lessons are 

put together towards the end of the year under the general 

headings of their particular periods ; the Tudors and the era 

of explorations and early settlements; the Stuarts and the 

religious changes in England, leading to heavy emigration 

to America ; the Georges and the Revolution. 

To fix the history from the period of explorations through 

the Revolution, a topical review of two or three weeks is 

admirable exercise. The geography must be kept well in 

mind. The broad principles in the whole period are brought 

out for the headings of the smaller divisions ; the relation of 

period to period is shown ; the causes and results of events 

are analyzed ; the children are led to generalize, to compare, 

to judge, as far as their powers will permit them to go. In 

a review of this nature details are not dwelt upon except to 

prevent the recitations from becoming dry and monotonous 

or to refresh facts ; they are used constantly, however, as 

accumulated material which is for the purpose of forming 

broader views and for grasping the sure, uninterrupted 

movement of a nation. The details have been studied and 

gained through the preceding months, but the children 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3I3 

should leave no impoytant period without also seeing that 
these details are not the end for which we are studying, but 
that they make it possible to see the real meaning of the life 
of the nation, just as flying scraps of paper tell the direction 

of the wind. 

EIGHTH YEAR GRADE 

The administrative period, from the Revolution to the 
present time, and the history of California form the subject 

matter for the history of the eighth grade. 
Material ^^^ ^^^^^ given is fifty minutes a day 

throughout the year. Half of the period 
is used by the pupils for preparation. According to the 
state law no study out of school can be required by the 
teacher, but many interested pupils read at the public library, 
or take school books home with them for the evening, through 
their own desire to know more about the periods studied. 

This part of the history of our country has many difficul- 
ties for grammar grade pupils, for its development is along 

the lines of mature growth, it is the complex 
Matter history of modern times, and care must be 

taken that it is not overwhelming to the chil- 
dren. There are many topics that are important and inter- 
esting without going into the vagaries of the currency, the 
intricacies of the tariff, or the vacillations of political parties. 
Such are the questions of transportation; the opening of 
new roads ; the conditions of the negroes ; the attitude of the 
North and the South toward the freedmen; immigration, 
and the settlement of great stretches of our country through 
the influx of foreigners ; the reasons for the development of 
certain states, as California, because of its mines, grain pro- 
duction, fruit raising, stock raising, climate ; Kansas, because 



314 METHODS IN TEACHING 

of the opening of its land to soldiers after the Civil War, and 
the vast areas there ready for the plow ; the Northwest, with 
its seemingly inexhaustible wheat acreage and pasture land, 
and its vast wealth in mining. Such questions are of far 
greater value to the children and they are more intelligible 
than are the majority of governmental and political topics. 
Unfortunately, reading matter on them is less accessible, 
and it is rarely written for children; but if the teacher and 
pupils are working together for the accumulation of mater- 
ial, wonders can be accomplished. At least, the emphasis of 
the preparation and the recitation can be laid upon those 
topics that are nearest the pupils, while those that are so 
difficult as to be studies even for the teacher can be passed 
over lightly enough to prevent the pupil abominating forever 
afterwards the very name of tariff, finance, presidential elec- 
tion. In our zeal to prepare the children for statesmanship, 
we are prone to overlook the fact that they must first be 
citizens. Citizenship is far simpler than statesmanship, it is 
nearer the individual life, it must touch every one. 

In the preparation of his lesson the eighth grade pupil 
naturally uses the methods of the preceding grade, even 

while he is being led out into broader uses 
Preparation 

of his maturmg powers. The supple- 
mentary texts and the regular class text are first used, as a 
sort of summary on the assigned topics. Then the pupil 
turns to the public library, the home collection of books, 
periodicals, and papers. 

The recitation follows the general lines of that of the 

seventh grade. Frequent discussions involve 
Recitation 

the majority of the pupils and have more 

life than set reproductions. Searching quizzes and short. 



HISTORY IN GRAMMAR GRADES 3I5 

accurate reproductions occur at any time, so that prepara- 
tion for them will never be neglected by the pupils. An 
eighth grade teacher^ says : " An effort is made to lead the 
pupil to talk from a topic and to know when he has ex- 
hausted his subject. He is encouraged to think and to give 
his own opinions. Before such a topic is assigned to an 
individual, the class is usually led to think about it, so that 
all are interested in the treatment. In this way pupils reason 
out many points without the aid of books. When conclu- 
sions have been reached individual presentation is called for 
in order to clarify ideas. Sometimes a general talk of this 
nature precedes the studying of the lesson, leading the pupil 
to think and reason while studying. Library reading is 
done on many topics." 
*Miss Belle Mitchell. 



CHAPTER XVI 

CIVICS 

The state supports the schools. The schools are the 
avowed trainmg centers for citizens of our republic. Conse- 
quently, in return for the money lavished 
Importance 

upon the schools, the state should be given 

citizens with a high degree of civic pride and honor, pre- 
pared to render willing support, and possessed of a knowl- 
edge of the possibilities and limitations of citizens. 

It is true that the family is, and always must be, the strong- 
est influence in character training. The school can only 
supplement the efforts of the home ; but the 
og-g- school may be a better instructor than the 

home in general information concerning the 
duties of citizens. To be thoroughly a part of a man's life, 
the conception of honest, unselfish citizenship must be com- 
menced with the child. Ilis understanding and appreciation 
of the institutional side of his own character and of its 
necessity in a well balanced life must be educated in his child- 
hood. Many growing children are prone to cast off allegi- 
ance to any person or institution simply from the belief that 
it is a sign of strength to do so; but, if shown that such 
allegiance is courage, loyalty, patriotism, that it appeals to 
the best and bravest in man, it may be embraced with an 
affection that long years of worldly struggle can not weaken. 

The object of the course in civics is to purify and render 
intelligible the child's institutional sense, and to direct it 

316 



CIVICS 317 

toward its legitimate objects of loyalty. The first steps in 
this training are to make clear to a child the nature of those 

institutions nearest to his life, as the home, 
Training ^^^^ school, the neighborhood. These are 

broadened later to the town, the state, the 
nation. There is thus trained that part of the child's na- 
ture that finds expression in patriotism toward home insti- 
tutions and in allegiance to constitutional government any- 
where. This training has its foundation in character ; hence, 
whatever elevation can be given to the character of a pupil 
is sure to be reflected in his citizenship. 

Instruction in civics accompanies history, and, in all grades 
to the eighth, the recitation time is taken from the daily 

period for history. No set time is arranged 
Time 

on the daily program, but it is expected 

that every week or ten days there will be careful work on 

some topic in civics. If two lessons are closely related they 

are taken on consecutive days. No regularly assigned work 

has as yet been followed in our schools, but every teacher 

selects from the summaries the material most suitable for 

her class, and comparison of work done in different grades 

prevents repetition of topics. 

PRIMARY GRADES 

Cultivate a spirit of social responsibility, of interest in and 
for companions. Man is a social animal, he must live in 
company with his fellow-men. He should 
J. . realize, therefore, the benefits and responsi- 

bilities arising from such relations. The 
school is an excellent place for starting the education of this 
idea with children. Relations with others begin in the 



3l8 METHODS IN TEACHING 

family. Discuss the family and the home with the little 
ones. Do more than talk to them ; lead them into thinking 
and expressing their own ideas, so doing much of the talking 
themselves. 

The family : Formed of whom ? children must be loved 
and cared for; children should have consideration for 
parents and an understanding of some of 
Family ^^^ burdens and responsibilities of parents; 

responsibilities should rest upon every mem- 
ber of the family ; children need some fixed tasks in order to 
help and also to learn how to work; interdependence of 
members of a family. 

Authority in the family : Its necessity, seen in the need of 
constant care for infants, of long continued training for chil- 
dren, and in the great number of things that there are for 
children to learn before being ready to go out into the world ; 
necessity for punishment after wrong doing, its nature; 
parents the center of all authority; older children, if they 
are reliable, grow into a share in the parental authority ; the 
honor to the child who shares this responsibility ; the respon- 
sibility attached to it ; the necessity for all children to learn 
how to govern themselves and how to help govern others. 

Ownership: Individual, as in marbles belonging to one 
boy ; common, as in a swing for the pleasure of all the chil- 
dren ; care of property ; accumulation of individual property 
and its relation to the good of all ; increasing the scope of 
common property, and its relation to the individual. 

Bonds of union : Mutual interests ; its effectiveness in 
training for the future ; personal affection, the strongest bond 
in the life of many people in home life, patriotism, religion. 

Early in the school year discuss with the children the 



CIVICS 319 

great change that has come to them by entering school. 

This may precede the discussions on the family as it ought 

to help fit the little ones into their new en- 

„ , , vironments : but after the talks on the home 

School 

the school should be reconsidered, so that 

the pupils fit it into their conception of the enlarging circle 
of their social relations. Interest in and for others is the 
true basis of social relations. See that the children live 
socially, that they play, work, chat, with others. Theory 
without practice is like looking at the apparatus of a gym- 
nasium without being trained by its use. Notice difficulties 
that arise in adjusting games or schoolroom routine, and, 
without making direct application to the occurrences, dis- 
cuss with the children the reasons for such disagreements, 
the rights involved, the possible injustice to some, and the 
means of settlement. There will be a response to good 
government and also an education toward an intelligent par- 
ticipation in it. In many cases, where absolute authority is 
not required, it is safe to allow the pupils to discuss and vote 
on the method of procedure, and so the children are learning 
to obey the will of the majority. Cheerfulness in such obedi- 
ence should be inculcated. 

Some of the rules for the schoolroom may be made more 

effective if the necessity for them is clearly understood by 

the pupils. Two broad divisions of rules 

^^^ and laws are readily seen, — rules for re- 

and . . . . 

Laws straining and rules for direction or progress, 

The need for both is quickly recognized. 
The children develop for themselves that the rules for re- 
straining are for the few, that those for guidance are for the 
many. They realize that there are comparatively few chil- 



320 METHODS IN TEACHING 

dren in the room who are so lawless that they must be re- 
strained by rules and regulations, for it is noticeable that in 
every class there are few evil-disposed pupils in proportion 
to the whole number; but they also reason out very easily 
that two or three noisy, quarrelsome, or disobedient pupils 
quickly disturb the peace and happiness of the whole class. 
Hence the need of restraint. Rules for direction, for train- 
ing, whether in book learning or in conduct, are for the 
many ; they are for progress, and all wish to advance. Some 
need more training than others; consequently, such rules 
may have to remain in effect longer for some pupils than for 
others. These thoughts, simplified for childish minds, made 
concrete by schoolroom examples, talked over in friendly, 
cooperative manner, prove remarkably helpful in fitting the 
individual into the social and governmental relations of 
school life, in arousing a desire for every one to control him- 
self by responding to conditions, and in direct preparation 
for self government. 

The children in the first two grades are too immature to 
be interested in the city government, but they take pleasure 

in learning the names of some of the public 
Officials officials nearest to their lives. In talking 

over the school system, for example, it is 
easy to pass from the class teacher to the principal of the 
building, then to the superintendent of schools. It is even 
of importance to give names accurately, writing them upon 
the board when not well understood. The duties of the 
teacher, principal, superintendent, can be talked over briefly, 
so that the children begin to see the interdependence of the 
parts in a large system and their relation to the well-being 
of the whole. The mail service is traced out briefly from 



CIVICS 321 

writing a letter to its being sent out of the city; and vice 
versa, from mail coming into the city to its delivery at the 
house by the postman. The police and the fire department 
are explained in a simple manner. General knowledge is 
thus gained and classified in an elementary way, observation 
is stimulated, personal interest is aroused, and the child feels 
himself more distinctly a part of the surrounding life. 

In the third and fourth grades, in connection with local 
history studies, some of the institutions of the city, and possi- 
bly of the state may be studied. As in the 

Third and ^^^^ ^^^^ grades, the object is not to accu- 

Fourth Grades ^ •' 

mulate a great amount of detailed knowl- 
edge, but to develop and rationalize the institutional side of 
character. 

In the third grade study of early Stockton and the growth 
into a city, there is opportunity to show the need of a mayor, 
a city government, protection from fire, at- 
^ ,.,. tention to streets and sidewalks, an organ- 

ized police force, a city jail. This founding 
and developing of a town combined with the growth of its 
government is a correlation of history and civics that is 
always valuable to a student. The fourth grade, dealing 
with Stockton as it is today, studies the modern city in a 
simple manner. Attention is called to the division of the 
city into wards, the city council, the school board, the city 
parks and their care, and many other matters of interest to 
children that may suggest themselves to the teacher. The 
children talk about their immediate surroundings, the need 
of good sidewalks and streets, the pleasure derived from 
well kept parks and shady trees. They learn who is the 
member of the city council from their own ward, how large 
22 



322 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the ward is, they inquire at home and report in school about 
some of the duties of a councilman toward his ward. Local 
interest and patriotism quickly adapt themselves to the larger 
units of city, state, nation; but if the local spirit has never 
become real and intense, broad patriotism is never truly 
quickened. Love for beautiful, sanitary, honestly won sur- 
roundings in one's own neighborhood is the foundation on 
which to build the desire for similar conditions in the wide 
nation that is our heritage. 

In discussing with the children the desirability of such 
moral attributes as honesty, bravery, truthfulness, unselfish- 
ness, develop the reverse of the picture. 
People That is, have them talk over why the oppo- 

site traits of character are dangerous to the 
happiness and well-being of the home, the city, the state. 
Include idleness, ignorance, and drunkenness in these dis- 
cussions. Find out whether the laws concerning them 
should be those of restraint or of training. 

An important part of the teacher's duty is to train pupils 
in courteous habits. This is a part of the child's character 
formation that goes on steadily at school, it 
is also one of the points of closest contact 
between the home and the school. The teacher deals with 
the child in his relation to a larger, more formal society than 
is met in the home life. The teacher should realize the 
social as well as the intellectual meaning of this change and 
should be equal to the needed guidance. Many a child is 
more courteous, truthful, honest, and unselfish at home than 
in school, and the opposite is also sometimes true. Either 
condition is almost wholly dependent upon the atmosphere 



CIVICS 323 

of training and discipline in the home or the school rather 
than upon the child himself. Short, pointed, friendly talks 
with the children help wonderfully in establishing a general 
response to genuine, kindly courtesy; and, since such talks 
help form the child's character, they are an important and 
legitimate division of civics, the making of the future citi- 
zen. 

There should be informal discussions with the children in 
which they express their own opinions on such points as 
kindness to each other at home; or at school, where there 
is less intimacy than in the narrower circle of home and 
immediate friends. Between persons where there is no 
desire for a close friendship, there may still be that courte- 
ous friendliness that makes even strangers feel at ease in 
each other's presence. Discuss in a similar way the honesty 
that precludes cheating in school as well as stealing money; 
respect for the old and infirm; unselfishness; the bravery 
that dares stop a fight, or use correct language on the play- 
ground in place of slang; manliness and womanliness. 

The subject m.atter must be adjusted constantly to the 

maturity of the class. Lessons on the postman in the first 

or second grade should be so different from any treatment of 

the post-office in the fourth grade, that the children have no 

sense of repetition of old material. The same is true of 

every topic. The work that belongs to one's own grade is 

what should be attempted, not that of a year or two in 

advance. 

GRAMMAR GRADES 

Instruction in the grammar grades includes a maturer 
treatment of the topics used in the primary grades and the 



324 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Study of more difficult subjects. A summary of the latter 
is given in the following outline, suggestive 
Outline ^^^ teachers of all grades; brief class out- 

lines are given under the different years. 

The machinery of government: ward, city, county, state, 
nation; the development of this machinery through the 
family, tribe, community, city, nation ; early governments in 
the United States, 

Laws : necessity, makers, interpreters, enforcers, penalties 
for violation. 

Finances : cost of government, taxation, assessment of 
property, expenditures, safe-keeping of money. 

Voting: machinery, benefits, will of the majority. 

Citizenship : the " American race," a conglomerate ; for- 
eign born element, its helpful and dangerous sides ; duties of 
all citizens ; responsibilities ; interests ; patriotism ; dangerous 
citizens ; " graft." 

International relations: friendship with foreign nations, 
possible benefits and disadvantages. 

Democracy : its opportunities for all ; justice of its govern- 
ment; dangers from bribery, carelessness, dishonesty, indo- 
lence ; need of educated citizens ; higher education in the high 
school and university should make better citizens of boys 
and girls ; patriotism ; the temptation offered by rank in for- 
eign countries and the meaning of such a society to the 
" lower classes." 

Some topics fit naturally into history, but correlation 
should not be made so close that useful, easily comprehended 
topics in civics are excluded because they do not also occur 
in history. 

Certain phases of taxation and of the expenditures of 



CIVICS 325 

public money can be studied in the fifth and sixth grades as 
well as in the seventh and eighth. Americans are proverbi- 
ally careless of public buildings. Instructions concerning 
their acquisition and care are very necessary. Children often 
deface public buildings because they are ignorant of the fact 
that the people themselves must either endure the displeas- 
ing appearance or they must pay for the renovating. Waste 
of public supplies, whether by oneself or permitted in some 
one else should be considered. 

Through the last three years of the grammar grades a 
class society is very helpful to the pupils in acquiring some 

knowledge of how a meeting should be 
Clflss 
Societies conducted, and of how to work together in 

organizations. Such a society should have 
a definite reason for existence; it should not be conducted 
in a haphazard manner; some recognized set of parliament- 
ary rules should be followed in all the forms needed by the 
children. 

In order to become familiar with the needs of governmentj 
the difficulties attending a democracy, and the consequent 

necessity for public spirit and unselfish at- 
Government tention to details let the children of any of 

the higher grammar grades undertake some 
degree of self-government. By the will of the majority, 
expressed in regular form, they can make some rules for 
their own government in school, in the yard, concerning 
their games; members of the class can be appointed or 
elected to enforce these rules ; some form of punishment may 
even be decided upon for any violation of the rules. Such 
a self-government committee may become the very life and 
inspiration of a school. The teacher must, of necessity, be 



326 METHODS IN TEACHING 

the guiding spirit; the years of childhood are the years for 
training, and pupils of the grammar grades are not mature 
enough, they are not well enough trained, to be allowed a 
large degree of independent self-government. On the other 
hand, that which is granted them must be real ; to feel that 
the committee is simply enforcing the teacher's rules, or 
that it has no liberty of decision and action, quickly kills the 
effectiveness of a so-called self-government. If entered into 
seriously and lived up to by the pupils, there is an invaluable 
training and an insight and growth into actual self-govern- 
ment. 

It is far easier to begin such a system than to carry it out. 
While the novelty lasts the pupils are enthusiastic; but, as 
time passes, the repetition of the common details of govern- 
ment seem monotonous to some; or the evil of influence, 
which passes so easily into bribery of some form, becomes 
apparent. Here is the opportunity of the teacher. The great- 
est dangers to our democratic institutions lie in corruption 
and the apathy of honest, common-sense citizens. If a 
teacher or principal possesses the power to guide pupils past 
this danger point into steady, regular administration of petty 
details, he has done more for the establishment of a depend- 
able public spirit than can be accomplished by any other 
study. 

The following outline indicates centers of discussion and 
instruction for the different grades. 

FIFTH YEAR GRADE 

The City (not to be carried far into details). 
Mayor : name, length of office, principal duties. 
Council : number of members, election, principal duties. 



CIVICS 327 

Departments : fire, police, school, health. 
General topics : 

Hospitals and charitable associations. 

The pound, animals at large in the city. 

Dredging channels. 

Paving streets and laying sidev^alks. 

Sewers. 

Street sprinkling. 

Water supply. 

Board of education, principal powers and duties. 

The schools. 

Public library. 

Lighting the city. 

Misdemeanors, especially such as may concern the con- 
duct of children. Many offenses begin in ignorance 
or in lack of respect for authority. 

City property. 

Telephone. 

Wharves. 
Which of the above regulations are for restraining citi- 
zens ? Which for training ? Which for convenience, pleas- 
ure, well-being, health? Are there any that refer to com- 
panies acting with the permission of the city? 

Perhaps the most important thought for the children in 
the above outline is that pertaining to misdemeanors. Bring 
before the class regulations that may concern their own lives, 
— riding a bicycle on the sidewalk, the speed of an automo- 
bile, defacing public buildings, petty thefts. Throw a little 
light on the laws of the city so that the children may act more 
intelligently. Remember that general information and the 



328 METHODS IN TEACHING 

cultivation of an intelligent and obedient public spirit is the 
object of this instruction, not the accumulation of detailed 
facts. Indigestible knowledge creates in the mind of the 
pupil a reaction against all study of civics ; assimilated knowl- 
edge means deep and lasting interest in local government. 

SIXTH YEAR GRADE 

The general outline is that of the fifth grade, with special 
elaboration of certain topics. Local self-government: its 
need, benefits, dangers ; need of honest, capable citizens and 
officials, the latter experienced in business in a large way- 
Legitimate matters for local control : making roads, build- 
ing bridges, erecting public structures, educating children, 
caring for poor and infirm, restraining dangerous people, 
protecting the city from fire. Other topics will suggest 
themselves to every teacher for the greater fullness of treat- 
ment in this grade. 

Some very brief, elementary work should be done on the 
state and nation. The principal offices and their incum- 
bents may be mentioned, and some illustrations of the rela- 
tion between city and state, or state and nation, may be 
made. These general studies serve many purposes. They 
illustrate the similarity of organization throughout our vari- 
ous governments; the power of the people in making their 
own laws ; the growing boundaries of authority through city, 
county, state, nation; the more intense local interest in the 
smallest unit of government ; the petty details in the smallest 
unit ; the growing gravity of interests involved in the affairs 
of larger units; the need of broad, loyal citizenship every- 
where. 



CIVICS 329 

SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES 

Texts are used either in the class or as supplementary 

reading; in the eighth grade a recitation period in civics 

should be arranged for on the daily program, 
Utility of .,, ... 1 11, 

Government either once or twice in the week throughout 

a definite portion of the year, or for a few 
consecutive weeks. In both grades the work concerns itself 
less with details of the machinery of government than with 
what is being done for the people by the government; the 
meaning of government ; its defects and sources of strength ; 
the reasons why, in a democracy, the people should under- 
stand the government. As, for instance, a study is made of 
the care of the poor on a county poor farm, the hospitals or 
asylums for the insane, reform schools for incorrigible chil- 
dren ; of what this care consists, why it is given, by whom, 
who pays for it, eiTects to the public if it were not given. 
There are many topics that can be followed out in this man- 
ner, arousing lasting interest in actual social conditions. 
Details of government must also be studied, but they should 
not exclude what is being done by putting in its place how 
it is done. 

Some of the topics for guidance of the teacher are : 

Government: necessity; the family, school, societies, city; 
various forms, — democracy, kingdom, absolutism; abuses 
and perils; good citizenship; personal character in its rela- 
tion to government ; public spirit, knowledge of state affairs, 
industries, relations to one another. 

The city : guided by the preceding outline, selecting those 
points about which the pupils show least knowledge. 

The county: geographical importance; board of supervi- 
sors and their duties ; relation to the city government ; county 



330 METHODS IN TEACHING 

schools, roads, bridges ; county seat ; any topics from " the 
city " that are applicable to the county. 

The state : governor ; state legislature ; state duties toward 
people; care of poor; of criminals; many topics from the 
text. 

The nation : historical connection with the development of 
the constitution ; points of contact with the pupil's life ; sig- 
nal service ; life saving stations ; weather bureau ; post-office ; 
harbors ; army and naval cadets. Make the nation a living, 
active entity in the mind of the children. Details as to the 
government will be mastered later if they seem tiresome and 
dry in these years. 



PART V 
DRAWING. MUSIC. PHYSICAL CULTURE. SEWING 



CHAPTER XVII 

DRAWING. MUSIC PHYSICAL CULTURE. SEWING 

DRAWING AND ART^ 

Art is added to drawing because drawing hardly covers 

all the work that is at present given in our schools. The 

oldtime drawing consisted mostly of copy- 

^^d th^^ ^"^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^* ^"^ ^^^ drawing of geo- 

Present metric figures, and had at its best the nar- 

row aim of training only the eye and the 
hand. The chief aims of drawing as taught in the best 
schools today are to lead the pupils to acquire first, the power 
of accurate observation; second, keen perception; third, 
sound reasoning; fourth, the development of a taste for the 
beautiful in nature and an appreciation for the achievements 
of man in art. To promote the first three aims object draw- 
ing and color work are given ; while the study of the prin- 
ciples underlying designing, the study of historic ornament, 
and the observation of pictures are means to secure the 
fourth. 

Art is the oldest language; it is the most natural; it is 
universal. The oldest records of the human race are the 
works of the artists of their day. Art is a 
Lan*a\ means of expression for the ignorant child 

and for the untutored savage; it is a com- 
munication of thought for the most highly civilized races. 
The works of the great masters of all ages and all nations, 

*This section on drawing and art is taken very literally from 
the course of study for the Stockton city schools. 

333 



334 METHODS IN TEACHING 

such as those of Phidias, Raphael, Diirer, Murillo, Rosa 
Bonheur, Landseer, need no translation. They are uni- 
versally understood. 

Considered in this light, a knowledge of drawing and art 
are essential in a well-rounded education. Instead of add- 
ing to an already crowded school curricu- 
Correlation 

lum, in the hands of a skillful teacher these 

branches become aids in mastering other studies; as, arith- 
metic, geography, nature study, history, literature. A pic- 
torial representation, as a drawing, a photograph, or even a 
few touches with pencil or chalk, often makes a thought 
clearer than when it receives only oral or written descrip- 
tions. Consequently, the correlation of drawing and art 
with other subjects is of great importance, although their 
teaching as a separate study is never lost sight of. The 
first thought in arranging the work for the grades is to have 
a natural, gradual growth and development along all the 
lines included in these branches throughout all the years of 
school life. 

Formerly the individuality of the child was not sufficiently 

respected; today there is more danger of not doing enough 

class work. To foster individuality original 

Individual exercises, as narrative drawing and design- 

and 

Class Work ^"^' ^^^ given frequently ; general drills and 

training are found in directed work, as 

drawing objects and geometric designs. While there are 

many reasons for the original work, the training under 

guidance must not be neglected, or no progress will be made 

along general, systematic lines. The two forms of exercise 

are necessary in public school work if good results are to 

be obtained. 



DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 335 

The work of the course for the schools is arranged under 
four general headings : constructive work, object drawing, 
creative drawing, and the aesthetics of art. No marked divi- 
sion line is drawn between these phases of art study with 
the children of the grades, and each is liberally interpreted 
in its relation to all the others ; but the four lines of growth 
are carefully nurtured throughout the eight years of the ele- 
mentary schools. 

The constructive work consists of paper folding, drawing 

geometric figures and designs, using the ruler, drawing to 

scale. The various exercises are carefully 
Constructive , , . , . '1 

^^jj.j^ planned to tram accuracy and attention, and 

are arranged to correlate with the more 
mechanical studies of the course, as arithmetic and geog- 
raphy. 

Object drawing consists of the drawing of objects either 
singly or in groups. For this purpose models are used, such 
as geometric solids, vase forms, and other 
Drawing figures; leaves, flowers, seeds, animals, fel- 

low pupils. These all afford desirable 
training in the power of accurate observation, keen percep- 
tion, and sound reasoning. Suitable subjects are also as- 
signed in nature study for the object drawing whenever it 
is possible. 

Creative drawing is subdivided into narrative drawing and 
designing. The first is more suitable for primary grades, 

while the second is better adapted to the 
Creative ^ . •. r .1 j 

Drawing greater maturity of the grammar grades. 

The material for narrative drawing is taken 

largely from history and literature. This should be an 

opportunity for the free expression of the child's own 



336 METHODS IN TEACHING 

thoughts and conceptions; but, at the same time, his atten- 
tion should be called to the proportions of the various parts ; 
he should be encouraged to make use of the knowledge 
gained from object drawing, thus aiding in the development 
of a healthy imagination. Designing should also be indi- 
vidual work, although the attention of the child should be 
called to the underlying principles. Here is the opportunity 
to make use of the geometric drawing of the constructive 
training and of the freedom and observation of the training 
in object drawing; for the designs must be based upon con- 
structive lines, and the conventionalized forms of foliage, 
flowers, and seeds are the most frequently used units. De- 
signing is the practical channel for the development of taste 
through individual effort. 

Under the fourth heading of the course is placed every- 
thing which tends to awaken an appreciation for the beauti- 
ful; but no attempt is made to teach the 
, . theory of art. Growth in such knowledge 

is induced by teaching color and calling at- 
tention to color harmony; secondly, by studying historic 
ornament, and by acquainting the children with the lives 
and some of the works of a few of the great masters in the 
world of art ; thirdly, by more general picture study as con- 
nected with tasteful schoolroom decoration. All these 
efforts and acquisitions give an unconscious tendency toward 
a fuller appreciation of the beautiful and a clearer under- 
standing of the higher standards of art. In all this work it 
must not be forgotten that one of the highest aims is to de- 
velop in the child the power to see for himself the beautiful 
in nature. 



DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 

Blackboard drawing should be encouraged, for the draw- 
ing can be done on a larger scale, a necessary consideration 

for little children with still undeveloped 
Drawinc muscles. It admits of greater freedom of 

movement and stroke; criticism by the 
teacher is more easily made and observed by all the class ; it is 
an invaluable means for training all children, especially timid 
ones, in freer and bolder work. In the lower grades, some 
time every day should be given to drawing on the boards. 

The necessity for training in the use of color must be 
fully recognized. Color work begins in the first grade, 

where the earliest steps are taken by means 
«x j^ of the spectrum and color slips, and by 

letting the children draw with colored cray- 
ons on the blackboard and with wax crayons on paper. From 
the second grade water color boxes are used. 

Brush work begins in the third grade, writing ink or 

neutral colors being used. For this and 
^ . all color work Chinese brushes are used. 

A few lessons in pen and ink are given in 
the upper grades. 

The general medium of expression is the pencil, but other 
mediums are also used. Pencils for drawing are furnished 

from the third grade through all the upper 

classes. The " Eagle Academic, Soft Me- 
dium," is used in the primary grades and also in the fifth 
grade ; in the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades " Eagle 
Draughting, No. 314," is used. For pencil and brush work 
a rough manilla paper is used ; for the color work, a rough 
white paper; while for special work the children are fur- 
nished at times with white or gray paper, well adapted for 
23 



338 METHODS IN TEACHING 

color or pen and ink work. The paper is put up in pads 6x9 

inches in size for use in the grades up to and including the 

fifth ; in the higher grades, pads 9x12 inches are used. 

Every school building has shelves for drawing models. 

These are well proportioned vase forms and type solids. 

To give variety and to add to the interest, the children bring 

natural forms and interesting objects used in every day life. 
The lighting of the schoolroom has been little considered 

in connection with the drawing. It is an essential. Poor 
lighting is a great drawback to the work in 
regular class rooms; while proper lightmg, 

as it is provided for in modern buildings of the better kind, 

greatly facilitates all work in drawing. 

PHYSICAL CULTURE* 

There is no longer a question as to whether physical cul- 
ture shall be taught in the schools. Nature has not provided 
for an unaided development of the mind, 

Development ^nd we cannot assume that of itself the body 

of Mind 

and Body ^'^^^ acquire right habits of performing all 

its functions, especially under the artificial 
conditions in which the growing child is placed. The de- 
velopment of the mind and body must go hand in hand, for 
a healthy body is the basis of intellectual, moral, and spiritual 
growth. Complexities of modern life make constantly in- 
creasing demands upon mental and nervous forces, and 
children must be trained physically if they are to have sound, 
sturdy bodies, capable of withstanding the wear and tear of 
the struggle before them. Nature demands the cultivation 

*The section on physical culture is compiled from the course of 
study for the city schools as arranged by Miss Emily Dodge, super- 
visor of that branch. 



DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 339 

of all our activities, and there can be no proper training that 
does not educate the whole system of man. 

The exercises used are selected and arranged with the 
following points in view : Real value in the development of 
the body. The limitations of the school room as regards 
time and space. Systematic training of large numbers with- 
out confusion. 

In the first lessons the children are taught the correct rest 

and active positions of the body while seated, the manner of 

rising and sitting-, and the correct standing 

Positions . ^, . , ^ 

position. The simplest exercises are selected 

for the first and second years in school, and the work is 
made as objective as possible. For example, in stretching 
the arms upward the teacher says : " Try to touch the ceil- 
ing;" or something to arouse the conscious effort of reach- 
ing up after an object. In the horizontal arm stretching for 
chest expansion they are told, " Try to touch the sides of the 
room." Exercises in marching are given in all the lower 
grades as helpful in forming correct habits of carriage for 
the body. The position for marching, " head erect, chest 
leading, hips back, hands at sides, weight on the balls of the 
feet " should be retained as the children march around the 
room or through the aisles, keeping step as they sing some 
bright marching song. No exercise is more thoroughly 
enjoyed than marching, and none is more helpful in afford- 
ing the needed rest and relaxation from the study period. 

The attention given in the first years to the position in 
sitting and standing is continued throughout the course. In 
the upper grades special stress is laid upon the correct carri- 
age of the body. This is essential, not only as a matter of 
gracefulness, but also for health. The result of regular, 



340 METHODS IN TEACHING 

systematic exercise in the schools is visible in the improved 
health and physical development of the children. 

MUSIC* 

Music holds a distinctive place in education, one which no 
other study can fill. It develops the emotional nature and 

reaches to the higher and inner life of the 
-, , . . heart and the soul. " The meaning of song 

goes deep. Who is there who in logical 
words can express the effect music has upon us ? A kind of 
inarticulate, unfathomable speech which leads us to the edge 
of the infinite." Martin Luther says : " Music admonishes 
man, renders him mild, gentle, modest, and reasonable. He 
who knows the art is ennobled by it and has aptitude for all 
things." How carefully must this subject be presented so 
that it may perform its true office of developing high and 
noble ideals which may become realities in the life and char- 
acter of the child. 

Great care is exercised in selecting songs both as to words 
and music, for impressions that are to be lasting are being 

formed. Every song should represent a 

mood that the child can feel and express; 
the music should be suited to the words and in a key that is 
adapted to the voices. The songs are often chosen with 
reference to the season of the year, correlating when possi- 
ble with nature study, literature, or history. No song should 
ever be sung in a lifeless or indifferent manner. " There is 
a correspondence between the soul of a song and the heart of 
a child," and if the teacher is enthusiastic, in sympathy with 

* The section on music is compiled from the course of study for 
the city schools as given by Miss Emily Dodge, supervisor in music. 



DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 341 

the children, and susceptible to the sentiment of the song, 
it is not difficult to establish this correspondence. The music 
lesson should always be a happy period. 

When singing there should be a natural erect position of 
the body with chest active and head up. If the chest is in- 
active the breath is impeded, and if the head 
Position 

is down the chin presses upon the larynx, 

preventing its free action. In the motion songs and the 
games of the primary grades there should be entire freedom 
from self-consciousness. The more natural and spontane- 
ous the play, the better for the music and the child. 

The breathing exercises may be given during the music 
lesson, or in connection with the physical culture, or at any 
time during the day when rest from the 
_ . study period is needed. The criterion for 

correct inspiration is " an increase in the size 
of the abdomen and lower part of the chest. Whoever 
draws in the abdomen and raises the upper part of the chest 
in the act of filling the lungs breathes wrongly." 

Simple vocal drills are introduced in the first year and 

continued throughout the course in order to overcome the 

tendency of the ordinary child to scream 
Vocal Drills 

his notes and so as to secure pure, sweet, 

sympathetic singing. Loud, harsh singing not only injures 

the throat but it emphasizes those very traits of character 

that it should be the province of music to overcome. 

Sight reading does not mean simply a mental exercise of 

reading from note to note. " Singing is the 
Readinz expression of the emotions and not of the 

intellect," consequently sight reading should 
include the sentiment of the song as well as the mental 



342 METHODS IN TEACHING 

exercise of reading the notes. If the exercises are sung in 
phrases and with expression, it is not always necessary to 
have words with which to express the emotion. The order 
of the lesson should be varied frequently to prevent monot- 
ony, and so that the children do not become weary and 
inattentive by dwelling too long on any one feature. The 
exercises should be selected to meet the needs of the class, 
and when a difficult one is mastered needless repetition 
should be avoided. 

Every morning session should be opened with singing, and 
in the primary grades there should also be a closing song. 

The first lesson in the receiving class consists of a few 
simple exercises for placing the tone and uniting the voices. 
Then come the rote songs which are the 
g principal feature of the lessons in the first 

year. These are chosen for a pleasing 
melody and a strong rhythm. Words and music are pre- 
sented at the same time. The rote songs for the primary 
grades are selected with the utmost care so that the form of 
the song is correct, the rhythm perfect, and the words suited 
to the melody and within the comprehension of the children. 

As the lessons proceed the scale is taught, beginning with 
the upper tone and singing down; then follow the simple 

intervals and the combinations of tones. 
Scales T^ 1- . 1 1 

Realizmg that the ear is especially sympa- 
thetic at this age, great care is taken to have the pitch of 
every tone absolutely true and every interval thoroughly 
fixed in the mind. From this simple beginning a course has 
been outlined for primary, intermediate, and grammar 
grades, so that a teacher knows what is required in music 
from month to month, just as in all other branches. 



DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 343 

The course includes opening and closing songs, songs of 
home life, songs descriptive of various occupations, and 
songs of nature. The latter are arranged to 
harmonize with the California climate. In 
the intermediate grades, where the pupils have learned to 
read at sight, part songs are given, soprano and alto being 
taken interchangeably by boys and girls. When the higher 
grammar grades are reached the change in boys' voices has 
to be considered, and care is exercised to keep the voice 
within a suitable range so that it is not overtaxed. The 
music for these grades is divided into soprano, alto, and 
bass. The part songs and choruses that are used consist of 
folk songs and strong, characteristic hymns and melodies. 

The time allowed for music on the daily program is fifteen 

minutes. The supervisor visits every class once a week, 

taking charge of the instruction the first 

o«««^i«;«« and third weeks on the occasion of the visit. 

Supervision 

overseeing the lesson as given by the grade 
teacher the second and fourth weeks. Teachers' meetings 
are held once a week for the instruction of new teachers and 
of any others needing the help. 

SEWING^ 

The economical and practical value of manual training to 
the future mother and housekeeper can not be over-esti- 
mated. The early habits of industry and the standard of 
good workmanship thus fostered, the uplifting of hand work 
by placing it among the studies of the public school, will add 
dignity to the woman and give pride in an accomplishment 

*The accompanying pages on sewing are taken from a short de- 
scription of the work by Mrs. Marie Reimcrs, supervisor of sewing 
in the Stockton city schools. 



344 METHODS IN TEACHING 

SO essential to good housekeeping. The immediate whole- 
some educational effect upon the girl is of no less value. 
Order, patience, perseverance, concentration, determination, 
and ingenuity are stitched into every garment; and to de- 
velop thoroughness, independence, originality, and individ- 
uality should be the aim of every system of manual training. 

The practical teacher of sewing is soon confronted with 
the fact that individual teaching is necessary to attain the 
best results. If need be the regular plan of the work must 
be made so elastic as to suit the pace of those who are swift 
of eye and hand and who, after all, are the teacher's best 
assistants ; for through their grit and enthusiasm the whole 
class may be fired to greater efforts, and the slow of eye and 
hand may come out triumphant in the end. 

The general outline of sewing in the public schools of 
Stockton comprises cutting and neat preparation and sewing 
of the work by the pupils. Objects similar in practice but 
different in form are given, thus arousing zeal and interest 
in the children. Sewing is taught in the seventh and eighth 
grades, one lesson a week. The period is three-quarters of 
an hour long in the seventh grade, an hour in the eighth. 
At the beginning of the term every pupil in the seventh grade 
is provided with a half yard of checked gingham and a quar- 
ter of a yard of muslin. Later on in the term both grades 
furnish their own material, thus giving full scope to indi- 
vidual taste and originality. 

The different stitches, seams, and fastenings of threads 
are first taught on a frame and copied by the child on a piece 
of gingham. The child is then ready to put the first lessons 
into practical use by cutting, basting, and joining by hand 



DRAWING, MUSIC, PHYSICAL CULTURE, SEWING 345 

twelve squares, as part of a larger quilt. Then follow in 
succession in the two years' course : 

( I ) Sewing bag : practice in cutting, hemming, overcast- 
ing, and outline or embroidery stitch for initial. (2) Needle 
case; practice in cutting, backstitching, and overcasting. 
(3) Apron: practice in cutting, hemming, gathering, and 
putting on band; also, for advanced pupils, the cross stitch 
or simple drawn work. (4) Sleevelets : practice in cutting, 
French seam, and hemming. (5) Darning. (6) Patch- 
ing. (7) Mending woolen dress goods. (8) Buttonhol- 
ing. (9) Handkerchief: practice in hemstitching and sew- 
ing on lace. (10) Corset cover: practice in cutting by pat- 
tern, repetition of former work, facing. (11) Shirt waist. 
(12) Skirt. 

In December embroidery and other fancy work suitable 
for use as Christmas gifts are taught, and complete freedom 
of choice is given. 

In these lessons no attempt is made to teach by chart, but 
the pupil is familiarized with handling patterns, so that by 
independent use of scissors and needle she can in the future 
expand and achieve her operations as taste and purse will 
allow. The resurrection of our grandmother's art proves 
indeed a blessing to the girl of today, and industry and use- 
fulness are fast becoming ideals of our times. 



REFERENCE BOOKS 
LITERATURE AND READING 

Teachers' List 

Arnold. Reading: How to Teach It. 
Arnold. Waymarks for Teachers. 
McMurray. Special Method in Reading. 

Teaching Reading in Ten Cities. A series of articles published in 
Primary Education for 1899-1900. 

For Class Use 

First Year Grade 

Open Sesame I. For poems for reading by teacher and for mem- 
orizing by the pupils. 
Scudder. Fables and Folk Stories. 
McMurray. Classic Stories for the Little Ones. 
Kipling. The Jungle Books. 

Stevenson, Robert Louis. Some of his poems for children. 
Blaisdell. Child Life. 
Bates. A Fairy Tale of a Fox. 

Second Year Grade 

Andersen, Hans Christian. The Little Match Girl, and other stories. 

Craik, Mrs. D. M. Adventures of a Brownie. 

Dodge, Mary Mapes. Hans Brinker. 

Beale. Stories from the Old Testament. 

Kingsley, Charles. The Heroes, or Greek Fairy Tales for Children. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. Tanglewood Tales. 

Wonder Book. 
Blaisdell. Child Life in Tale and Fable. 
Smythe. Old Time Stories Retold. 
Chaplin. Little Folks of Other Lands. 

Third Year Grade 

Arabian Nights, Six Stories from Eliot. 
Lamb, Charles. Adventures of Ulysses. 

346 



REFERENCE BOOKS 347 

"Ouida" (Louise de la Ramee). The Dog of Flanders. 

The Nurnburg Stove. 
Mulock, Miss. The Little Lame Prince. 
McMurray. Robinson Crusoe. 
Baldwin. Fifty Famous Stories Retold. 
Heller. Snowdrop and Other Stories. 

Fourth Year Grade 

Swift. Gulliver's Travels. 
Andrews. Seven Little Sisters. 
Cooke. Nature Myths. 
Lang. The History of Whittington. 
The Princess on the Glass Hill. 

Fifth Year Grade 

Hawthorne. Tanglewood Tales. 

The Paradise of Children. 

The Miraculous Pitcher. 
Sewell. Black Beauty. 
Kingsley. Water Babies. 
Brown. Rab and His Friends. 
Thompson, Ernest Seton. Wild Animals that I have Known. 

The Biography of a Grizzly. 
Schwatka. The Children of the Cold. 

Sixth Year Grade 
Ruskin. King of the Golden River. 
Dickens. Little Nell. 
Scott. Stories from Waverley. 
Hawthorne. The Great Stone Face. 
Browning. The Pied Piper of Hamelin. 
Lamb. Tales from Shakespeare. 
Alcott. Little Women. 

Little Men. 
Andrews. Ten Boys on the Road from Long Ago. 
Pratt. Stories of Colonial Children. 
Brooks. The Story of the Iliad. 

The Story of the Odyssey. 

Eighth Year Grade 

Lamb. Tales from Shakespeare. 
Johnson, Dr. Rasselas. 



348 METHODS IN TEACHING 

Yonge. The Prince and the Page. 
Warner. Being a Boy. 

A Hunting of the Deer. 
Hale. A Man without a Country. 
Hughes. Tom Brown at Rugby. 
Dana. Two Years before the Mast. 
Cooper. (Several of his stories.) 
Kingsley. "Westward Hoi" 

LANGUAGE 
Teachers' List 

Primary Grades 
Arnold and Kittredge. The Mother Tongue, Book I. 
Tarbell. Lessons in Language, Book I. 
Badlam, Anna B. Language and Reading. 
Sheldon. Primary Language Lessons. 

Grammar Grades 

Lewis. A First Book in Writing English. 

A First Manual of Composition. (Especially applicable for 

eighth grades.) 
Chittenden. Elements of English Composition. 
Lockwood. Lessons in English. 
Scott and Denney. Composition-Rhetoric. (A book for high 

schools, but an excellent guide for teachers in eighth grades.) 
Kittredge and Arnold. The Mother Tongue, Book H. 
Tarbell. Lessons in Language, Book H, 
Davenport and Emerson. Principles of Grammar. 
Sheldon. Advanced Language Lessons. 

For All Grades 
Bechtel. Slips of Speech. 
Allardyce. Punctuation. 

Hardy, Irene. Composition Exercises. (Full of valuable sugges- 
tions for devising subjects for compositions.) 

WORD STUDY 

Arnold. Reading: How to Teach It. 

Pollard. Manual of Synthetic Reading and Spelling. 

Ward. The Rational Method in Reading. 



REFERENCE BOOKS 349 

ARITHMETIC 

Speer. Elementary Arithmetic. 

McLellan and Ames. Public School Arithmetic. 

Prince. Arithmetic by Grades. 

Eaton. The New Arithmetic. 

Walsh. Higher Arithmetic. 

The Psychology of Number. 

NATURE STUDY 

Bailey, L. H. Lessons with Plants. 
Elementary Botany. 
The Nursery Book. 

Gray, Asa. How Plants Grow. 

Newell, Jane H. Outline Lessons in Botany. 2 vols. 

Parsons-Buck. Wild Flowers of California. 

Comstock, John H. Insect Life. 

Miall, L. C. Natural History of Aquatic Insects. 

Keeler, Charles A. Bird Notes Afield. 

Miriam, Florence. Birds thru an Opera Glass. 

Parker, T. Jeffrey. Elementary Biology. 

Jenkins and Kellogg. Lessons in Nature Study. 

Murche, Vincent T. Object Lessons for Infants. 2 vols. 
Object Lessons in Elementary Science. 3 vols. 

Woodhull, John F. Simple Experiments. 

Laurie, A. P. Food of Plants. 

Bulletins of United States Agricultural Department. Monthly lists 
furnished on application. (Teachers should by all means 
make use of this source for literature on school gardens, agri- 
cultural methods, etc.) 

GEOGRAPHY 

Farnham. Oswego Methods in Geography. 

Geike. Physical Geography. 

Shaler. First Book in Geology. 

Parker. How to Study Geography. 

Mill. Realm of Nature. 

Tan and McMurray. Home Geography, Book I. 

North America, Book II. 
Frye. Child and Nature. 
Redway. Advanced Geography. 
King. Methods and Aids in Geography. 



350 METHODS IN TEACHING 

HISTORY 

Beale. Stories from the Old Testament for Children. 
Brooks. The Story of the Iliad. 

The Story of the Odyssey. 
Ragozin. Earliest Peoples. 
Guerber. The Story of the Romans. 

The Story of the Greeks. 
Harding. The City of the Seven Hills. 

Stories of Greek Gods, Heroes, and Men. 
Moore. Pilgrims and Puritans. 
Eggleston. Story of Great Americans for Little Americans. 

Household History of the United States. 
Brooks, Elbridge. True Story of Abraham Lincoln. 

True Story of Columbus. 

True Story of Washington. 
Fiske. History of the United States. 
Montgomery. Leading Facts in American History. 
Sheldon (Mrs. Mary Sheldon Barnes). Studies in American His- 
tory. 
McMaster. School History of the United States. 
Towle. Heroes and Martyrs of Invention. 
Mowry. American Inventions and Inventors. 
Powers. The Missions of California. 
James. Old Missions and Mission Indians of California. 
Winterburn. The Spanish in the Southwest. 
Royce. California. American Commonwealth Series. 
Hood. Tales of Discovery on the Pacific Slope. 
Snedden. Docas, the Indian Boy of Santa Clara. 

CIVICS 
Dole. The Young Citizen. 

The American Citizen. 
Judson. The Young American. 
Macy. Civil Government. 
Young. Government Class Book. 
Fiske. Civil Government in the United States. 

American Political Ideas. 
Ford. American Citizen's Manual, Parts I. and II. 
Bryce. American Commonwealth. 2 vols. 



INDEX. 



Addition, 129, 136, 137, 138, 139, 
140, 141, 145, 149, 161, 162 
Adjective, 71, 76, 80 
modifiers, 12, 85 
Adverb, 67, Id, 80 

adverbial connectives, 68, 72, 

86 
adverbial modifiers, 72, 76, 
85 
Africa, 250, 255 
Air, action of, 238 

chemistry of, 217 
currents of, 206, 208, 257 
pressure of, 210 
Alaska, 253 
Alcohol, 229 

Algebraic formulas, 162, 164 
America, 287, 306, 307 
Animal study, 173, 190 

animals as soil makers, 200 
Aquarium, 190 
vessel, 191 
life, 191-197 
Arithmetic 127 

first grade, 134; second 
grade, 136 ; third grade, 
139; fourth grade, 145; 
fifth grade, 149; sixth 
grade, 156; seventh grade, 
161 ; eighth grade, 164 
group work, 133 
incidental period, 133, 134 
mental, 129, 151, 161, 164, 

165 
problems in, 130, 142, 146, 
151, 161, 162, 164, 167, 237 
Asia, 250, 255 
Australia, 255 



Barometer, 213 

Bible stories, 9, 20, 267 

Birds, 199 

Brush work, 337 

California, 245, 251, 280, 283, 313 

Candle, experiments with, 225- 
227 

Carbon-dioxide, 220 

Carbon-bisulphide, 221, 222 

Cary sisters, 11, 12 

Caterpillars, 198 

Central America, 253 

Civics, 316 

primary grades, 317 
grammar grades, 323 
fifth grade, 326 ; sixth grade, 
328 ; seventh grade, 329 ; 
eighth grade, 329 

City, 236, 243, 320, 326, 328, 329 

Climate, 228, 238, 258 

Color work, Z2,l 

Columbus, 270, 272, 287, 288 

Combustion, 221-227 

Composition, 53, 54 

first grade, 60 ; second grade, 
64 ; third grade, 69 ; fourth 
grade, 73 ; fifth grade, 80 ; 
sixth grade, 87 ; seventh 
grade, 90 ; eighth grade, 9S 
in literature: first grade, 10; 
second grade, 12, 14; third 
grade, 17, 19; fourth 
grade, 19, 20; fifth grade, 
30; sixth grade, 39, 40; 
seventh grade, 42, 44, 45 
correcting papers, 55, 56, 69, 
75, 91, 95, 97 



351 



352 



INDEX. 



Compound numbers, 148, 150, 

155 
Condensation, 202 
Counting, 136 
County, 239, 240, 329 
Creamery, 244 

excursion to, 246 
Crusades, 42, 299 
Cuba, 253 
Cube root, 168 

Dickens, 46 

Dictionary, use of, 25, 27, 116, 

117 
Division, 129, 136, 138, 141, 145, 
162 

long division, 148, 149 
Dog, 199 
Drawing, 333 

blackboard drawing, 337 

Creative drawing, 335 

object drawing, 335 

in history, 274 

in literature, 7, 11, 25, 36, 
46, 83 

in nature study, 175 

England, 256, 297, 306 
Europe, 250, 255, 299 
Evaporation, 201 
Expansion, by heat, 203, 205 
by freezing, 205 

Factoring, 152 

Fairy stories, 265 

Field, Eugene, 11, 12 

Figures of speech, 25, 31, 35, 82 

Flowers, 181 

Folk tales, 9, 265 

Fractions, common, 127 

by constructive work, 142 
by measurements, 146 
fundamental operations 
with, 150-155 



Fractions, common, text-book 
presentation of, 161 
reviews of, 162 
decimal, 127, 156, 157-159, 
161, 162 

Gases, collecting by displacement, 
218 
pressure of, 209 
Geography, 231 

first grade, 234 ; second 
grade, 234 ; third grade, 
236; fourth grade, 237; 
fifth grade, 248; sixth 
grade, 251 ; seventh grade, 
255; eighth grade, 259 
Geographical excursion, 232 

to the creamery, 246 
Geographical type, 233 
Grammar, applied, 49, 59, 61, 66, 
70, 72, 79, 84, 88, 95 
formal, or technical, 49, 52, 
79, 83, 88, 92, 95 
Greeks, 298 
Greece, 299, 300, 304 

Hawaiian Islands, 253 

Health lessons, 229 

Heat, expansion by, 203 

Hiawatha, 10, 267, 268, 270 

History, 263 

first grade, 267; second 
grade, 270 ; third grade, 
274; fourth grade, 281; 
fifth grade, 287; sixth 
grade, 296 ; seventh grade, 
306; eighth grade, 313 
local, 280, 283. (See also 
Stockton.) 

Horatius, 13-15, 270 

Insect study, cage, 197 

life, 198 
Insurance, 166 
Interest, 127, 160, 167 



INDEX. 



353 



Language, 48 
oral, 49 
written, 53 

first grade, 59; second grade, 
61 ; third grade, 66 ; fourth 
grade, 70; fifth grade, 78; 
sixth grade, 83 ; seventh 
grade, 88 ; eighth grade, 95 
Laws, 319, 324, 328 
Letter writing, 81, 86, 90 

business letters, 130, 159 
Library, 282, 307, 314 
Lime water, preparation of, 221 
Liquids, pressure of, 209 
Literature, 3 

first grade, 9 ; second grade, 
11; third grade, 16; fourth 
grade, 19 ; fifth grade, 23 ; 
.sixth grade, 31 ; seventh 
grade, 41 ; eighth grade, 46 
Longfellow, 11, 12, 23, 24, 26, 
268 

Maps, 25, 46, 236, 238, 240, 242 
Map drawing, 243, 254, 259, 260 
Magnetism, 203 
Measurement, 127, 128, 135 138, 

143, 145, 146, 148, 160, 

161, 168 
Metals, common, 216 
Metaphors, 25, 35 
Mexico, 253 
Midas, 17 
Middle Ages, 297 
Money, 155 
Multiplication, 129, 136, 138, 140, 

145, 149, 162 
Music, 340 
Myths, 265 

Narcotics, 229 
Nature study, 173 
Nitrogen, 221 
North America, 251 
Notebooks, history, 269, 303, 311 
24 



Notebooks, literature, 20, 43, 44, 
46, 60, 87, 93, 97 

Odyssey, 20 

Outlines, history, 275, 284, 290, 
300, 311 
literature, 25, 44 
Oxygen, making of, 219 

Paragraph, 19, 74, 82, 86, 91, 276, 

277 
Paraphrasing, 26, 89 
Partition, 136, 138, 145 
Percentage, 127, 156, 159, 162, 

163 
Personification 25, 35 
Philippines, 253 
Phonics, 100, 102, 110 

first grade, 103; second 
grade, 106, 107; third 
grade, 111, 112; fourth 
grade, 113, 114; fifth 
grade, 116 
Phonograms, 104, 105 
Physical culture, 338 
Plant study, 173 
flowers, 181 

food stored by plants, 184 
seeds and seed distributing, 

175 
seed germination, 179 
tree, its life, 178 
movement of plants, 185 
parasitic plants, 187 
propagation of plants, 187 
plants useful to man, 185 
plants as soil makers, 188 
plants in land building, 189 
Poems teaching of, 17, 23, 26, 

27, 28, 31, 33-36 
Porto Rico, 253 

Pronouns, second grade, 62 ; 
third, grade, 67 ; fourth grade, 
76; fifth grade, 80; sixth 
grade, 85, 86 



354 



INDEX. 



Pronouns, relative, 68, 16, 88 
Punctuation, 19, 40, 58, 60, eZ, 

70, 78, 89, 96 
Pupils' illustrative papers, arith- 
metic: third grade, 143 

geography : fourth grade, 
246; sixth grade, 254 

history: second grade, 273; 
third grade, 280 ; fourth 
grade, 284, 285; fifth 
grade, 294, 295 

language and composition : 
first grade, 60, 61 ; second 
grade, 65, 66 ; third grade, 
69, 70; fourth grade, le, 
77', fifth grade, 82, 83; 
sixth grade, 87, 88 ; seventh 
grade, 93, 94 ; eighth grade, 
97, 98 

literature: second grade, 15; 
third grade, 17, 18; fifth 
grade, 29, 31 ; sixth grade, 
37 

word study : second grade, 
111; fourth grade, 115, 
116; sixth grade, 119; 
seventh grade, 119; eighth 
grade, 122, 123 

Reading, 3, 28, 32, Z2>, 41 
Reproduction, history, 269, 275, 
291, 309 
language and composition, 
49, 50, 53 

first grade, 60 ; second 
grade, 61, 64; third 
grade, 66 ; fourth 
grade, 70, 7Z\ fifth 
grade, 81 ; eighth 
grade, 96 
literature : first grade, 1 ; 
second grade, 12, 14; third 
grade, 1 7 ; fourth grade, 
19; fifth grade, 26, 28 
Rivers, 237, 238, 243 



Rome, 299, 300, 304 

Scott, 46 
Seeds, 175 

distribution of, 175 
increase of, 177 
Sentence, structure of, 19, 30, 66, 
68, 69, 71, 72, 82, 85, 86, 
87, 91, 97, 98 
Silkworms, 199 
Similes, 25, 31, 35 
Sky, lessons, on, 227 
Soil, 240 

made by animals, 200 
made by plants, 188 
Solution, 215 

South America, 249, 250, 255,259 
Spelling, 101, 110 

first grade, 105 ; second grade, 
107; third grade, 113; 
fourth grade, 114; fifth 
grade, 116; sixth, seventh, 
and eighth grades, 118 
Square root, 168 
State, the, 245, 251, 328, 330 
Stockton, in arithmetic, 131, 132, 
133 
in geography, 236, 240, 243, 

250, 254 
in history, 280. (See also 
local history.) 
Story, presentation of, 5 

first grade, 9 ; second grade, 

13; third grade, 16; fourth 

grade, 19, 21 ; seventh 

grade, 41 

in history, 268, 269, 274,275 

dramatic element, 7, 9, 10 

Subtraction, 136, 137, 138, 139, 

145, 162 
Switzerland, 235, 250, 259 

Teachers' method sheets, arith- 
metic: fourth grade, 146; 
fifth grade, 151; sixth 



INDEX. 



355 



grade, 157; sev<?nth grade, 
162; eighth grade, 165 

geography : fourth grade, 
242; seventh grade, 258 

history : second grade, 272 ; 
third grade, 278; fifth 
grade, 293 ; sixth grade, 
303; eighth grade, 315 

language and composition : 
first grade, 58 ; sixth 
grade, 84 ; seventh grade, 
89; eighth grade, 96 

literature : first grade, 9 ; 
second grade, 12; fourth 
grade, 21; fifth grade, 26; 
sixth grade, 33 ; seventh 
grade, 42 

word study : second grade, 
107 
Technical drills in language, 51, 
59, 62, 66, 70, 79, 80, 84, 
86, 88, 93, 97 
Tobacco, 229 



United States, in geography, 248, 
251, 252, 253, 260 
in history, 42, 297 

Valleys, 238 

Verbs, drills in use of, 40, 51, 52 
first grade, 59 ; second grade, 

62, 65, 66 ; third grade, 67 ; 

fourth grade, 71, 76; fifth 

grade, 79 

Water, currents of, 206, 208, 257 

pressure of, 210 
Whittier, 31, 32, 35, 36 
Word study, 100 

first grade, 103 ; second 
grade, 106; third grade, 
111; fourth grade, 113; 
fifth grade, 116; sixth, 
seventh, and eighth grades, 
118 
in literature, 25 



Methods in Elementary Education 

A SERIES OF EDUCATIONAL BOOKS IN TWO GROUPS COVERING 

THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OP METHOD AND ITS SPECIAL 

APPLICATIONS TO THE COMMON SCHOOL 

By CHARLES A. McMURRY, Ph.D. 

Northern Illinois State Normal School, De Kalb, III. 



The Elements of General Method 

Based on the ideas of Herbart. New edition, rerised and enlarged. Cloth, xamo. 331 
pp. 90 cents net. (Postage 10 cents. ) 

The Method of the Recitation 

New edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth. lamo. 339 pp. 90 cents net. (Postage 10 
cents. ) 

Special Method in the Reading of Complete English Classics 
in the Common Schools 

Cloth. 12010. 254 pp. 75 cents net. ( Postage 9 cents. ) 

Special Method in Primary Reading and Oral Work with 
Stories 

Cloth. i2mo. 198 pp. 60 cents net. (Postage 8 cents.) 

Special Method in Geography 

New edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth. 12010. 228 pp. 70 cents net. (Postage 
9 cents.) 

Special Method in History 

A complete outline of a course of study in history, for the grades below the high school. 
New Edition, revised and enlarged. Cloth. 12010. 291pp. 75 cents net. (Postage 
9 cents.) 

Special Method in Elementary Science for the Common School 

Cloth. i2mo. 285 pp. 75 cents net. (Postage 10 cents.) 

Special Method in Arithmetic 

Cloth. i2mo. 200 pp. 70 cents net. 

Special Method in Language in the Eight Grades 

Cloth. i2nio. 200 pp. 70 cents net. 

Type Studies from the Geography of the United States 

First Series 

Cloth. i2nio. 382 pp. 50 cents net. 

Excursions and Lessons in Home Geography 

Cloth. i2mo. 184 pp. 50 cents net. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 



Source Book of the History of 
Education 

FOR THE GREEK AND ROMAN PERIOD 

By PAUL MONROE, Ph.D. 

Adjunct Professor of the History of Education 
Teachers College, Columbia University 

Cloth 12tno $2.25 net 

" I have decided to recommend it to my class in the History of Educa- 
tion as the basis of their work for this fall term. I regard the material as 
very carefully and judiciously selected — by far the best book of extracts with 
which I am acquainted." 

—Dr. Wm. J. Taylor, 

Lecturer on the History of Education, 

Yale University. 



A Modern School 

By PAUL H. HANUS 

Professor of the History and Art of Teaching, Harvard University 
Author of '* Educational Aims and Educational Values," etc. 

$1.25 net 

The chapters of which this volume consists, except the last, deal with 
various phases of one central theme ; the scope and aims of a modern school, 
and the conditions essential to its highest efficiency. The last chapter offers 
some testimony on the working of the elective system, — a contemporary ques- 
tion of great importance to both schools and colleges, — but the testimony 
offered pertains only to the college. The first chapter deals specifically with 
the secondary school ; and in it the author has endeavored to extend and 
strengthen certain conceptions set forth in his earlier book. The next seven 
chapters contain a fuller treatment of certain topics than was appropriate 
or expedient in the first chapter, and discuss the internal and external condi- 
tions essential to a high degree of success in the work of any school. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK 



A History of Education in the 
United States 

By EDWIN GRANT DEXTER, Ph.D. 

Professor of Education in the University of Illinois 

$2.00 net. 

This new work has been prepared in the belief that the greatest need of 
the student of our educational history is a considerable mass of definite fact 
upon which to base his own generalizations, or with which to interpret those 
of others, rather than extended philosophical discussions of historical trend. 
Current educational literature is rich in the latter, though comparatively barren 
of the former. The present book deals, therefore, with the/a^/ rather than 
with \he philosophy ot education in the United States. It contains an excep- 
tionally valuable equipment of references and bibliographies. 



The Philosophy of Education 

By HERMAN HARRELL HORNE, Ph.D. 

Asastant Professor of Philosophy and Pedagogy in Dartmouth College 

$1.50 net 

This volume is a connected series of discussions on the foundations of 
education in the related sciences of biology, physiology, sociology, psychology, 
and philosophy. It is not another of the many current manuals of practice, 
but a thoroughgoing interpretation of the nature, place, and meaning of educa- 
tion in our world. The newest points of view in the realms of natural and 
mental science are applied to the understanding of educational problems. The 
field of education is carefully divided, and the total discussion is devoted to 
the philosophy of education, in distinction from its history, science, and 
art. The conceptions of evolution, society, and genetic psychology shed their 
light upon educational phenomena, yielding in the end a comprehensive defi- 
nition of what education is. The various conflicting modern educational 
opinions are organized to a considerable extent, and are made to appear as 
partial truths of a common system. The whole is suffused with the spirit of an 
idealistic philosophy in which education is finally made to yield its ultimate 
meaning as to the origin, nature, and destiny of man. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

64-6$ FIFTH AVEHUE, NEW YORE 



l^AY^^^ 1907 




01 1 023 994 4 # 



